Islamic Glossary

Readers might find it difficult to understand some of the religious terminology in parts of this website. Here is a list of the most commonly used terms that may require clarification. It would be appreciated if our respected readers inform us of any terms that aren’t mentioned in this list.   

---

AH: An abbreviation for “After Hijra” (Arabic: بعد الهجرة), referring to the Islamic calendar that begins from the year of Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh&hp) migration (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. The Hijra marks the founding of the first Muslim community (ummah) and the establishment of the Islamic nation. The Islamic calendar (taqwim hijri) is based on lunar months (e.g., month of Ramadan, Dhu al-Hijja), and all major Islamic dates—such as Hajj, and Eid—are determined according to it.

A‘mal (أعْمال): Ritual acts of worship performed by Muslims with the intention (niyyah) of fulfilling religious duties and drawing closer to God. These include prayers (salah), fasting (sawm), paying religious dues and charity (zakat, sadaqah), pilgrimage (hajj), and similar devotional acts. In Islamic teachings, a‘mal is valued based on sincerity (ikhlas) and forms a key part of one’s spiritual and moral standing.

Aalim (عالِم): Literally means the opposite of jahil (“ignorant”). In technical/Islamic usage: a religious scholar; a learned person in the Islamic sciences, especially jurisprudence, theology, and exegesis.

Abbas ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib (p) (العبّاس بن علي بن أبي طالب): Brother of Imam Husayn (p), son of Umm al-Banin, martyred at Karbala.

Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari (Jundub ibn Junada) (أبو ذَر الغِفاري / جُندب بن جَنادة): Companion of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), loyal to Imam Ali (p), exiled by Caliph Uthman, died in 32 AH (651 AD).

Abu Talib (أبو طالب): Father of Ali (p), uncle and guardian of Prophet Muhammad ((pbuh&hp)) during his childhood. Supported the Prophet during the early days of his messengership. 

Abyar Ali (أبيار علي): A site about 4.3 miles (7 km) from Medina, known for Masjid al-Shajarah, a major miqat where pilgrims enter ihram for ʿUmrah or Hajj.

Adam (آدم): First human being and first prophet of Allah on Earth.

Adhan (أذان): Literally means: “announcement” or “call.” In Islam, it is the public call to prayer recited aloud to announce the time for each of the five daily prayers. The adhan contains phrases declaring the greatness of Allah and the testimony of faith (shahadah), ending with the invitation to prayer (hayya ʿala al-salah) and success (hayya ʿala al-falah). According to Shia tradition, the phrase “Hayya ʿala khayr al-ʿamal” (“Hasten to the best of deeds”) is included. The adhan symbolizes the unity of believers and serves as a reminder of God’s presence throughout the day.

Adil (عادِل): “Dutiful”; one who upholds justice, particularly in legal or religious contexts (i.e., fulfillment of religious obligations and staying away from prohibitions).

Ahd (عَهْد): A binding promise or covenant made with Allah, which must take a specific form to be valid—e.g., saying “ʿAhadtu Allaha an… (I promise Allah that I will…)”.

Ahl al-Bayt (أهل البيت): Literally means: “the Household”; in Islamic usage, it refers to the purified family of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp)—Imam ʿAli (p), Lady Fatima (p), Imam al-Hasan (p), and Imam al-Husayn (p), and in Shia belief also the nine succeeding Imams (from Imam ʿAli b. al-Husayn to Imam al-Mahdi) from the lineage of Imam al-Husayn (p)—whose spiritual status and religious authority are affirmed in the Holy Qur’an (33:33) and authentic traditions/hadiths.

Ahl al-dhimmah (أهل ُالذِّمَّة): Non-Muslims living under Muslim rule who, by paying the jizyah tax, were granted protection, security, and the right to practice their religion.

Ahl al-Hadith (أهلُ الحديث): Literally means: “People of hadith”; in usage, it refers to scholars who prioritize the transmission and authenticity of hadith as the primary source of Islamic knowledge and jurisprudence—an outlook often differing from those who emphasized rational theology (kalam).

Ahl al-Kitab (أهلُ الكتاب): Literally “People of the Book”; a Qur’anic term (mentioned 67 times across 33 verses) referring mainly to Jews and Christians as recipients of earlier divine scriptures. One of the most important is 3:64, which emphasizes the kalimah sawa (common word) between Muslims and the People of the Book: “Say, O People of the Book! Come to a word that is equitable between us and you—that we worship none but Allah, associate nothing with Him, and that none of us take others as lords besides Allah….”

Ahwat (أحوط): Precautionary measure in Islamic jurisprudence; may be obligatory (Ahwat wujubi أحوط وجوبي) or recommended (Ahwat Istihbabi أحوط استحبابي) based on the opinion of the mujtahid.

Akhirah (آخرة): The Hereafter; the life after death, including resurrection, judgment, and eternal reward or punishment.

Akhlaq (أخْلاق): Ethics or good moral character; includes virtues such as honesty, patience, humility, and compassion in Islamic teachings.

al-Adiyah al-Mathurah (الأدعيةُ المأثورة): Literally “transmitted supplications”; refers to prayers and invocations reported from the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the Imams (p), preserved in hadith and devotional literature. Notable examples include the supplication narrated by Kumayl from Imam ʿAli (p), and the supplications of Imam ʿAli b. al-Husayn (p) in al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya.

A’lam (أعلَم): The most knowledgeable, as in jurist; the top-ranking authority in Islamic jurisprudence among contemporary mujtahids.

al-Amr bi al-Maruf (الأمرُ بالمعروف): Literally “the commanding of what is right” or “enjoining the good,” this refers to the Islamic duty of promoting virtuous actions and encouraging moral behavior under Islamic teachings. It is a fundamental ethical and social principle and a branch of Islam, often paired with An-Nahy ʿan al-Munkar (النّهي عن المنكر) – “forbidding what is wrong.” It has specific conditions. 

al-Arsh (العَرْش): Literally “the Throne”; in the Qur’an it refers to the supreme throne of Allah, symbolizing His majesty, authority, and sovereignty over creation. The Qur’an frequently mentions God as “Lord of the Throne” (e.g., al-Tawbah 9:129; al-Muminun 23:116; al-Buruj 85:15), underscoring divine transcendence and ultimate power.

al-Baqi (البقيع): Literal meaning: “open ground with trees and roots.” Technical meaning (Islamic history): the earliest and first Islamic cemetery of Madina, known as Jannat al-Baqi. It contains the graves of many companions and family members of the Prophet (pbuh&hp). Four Shia Imams are buried there: Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba (p), Imam ʿAli Zayn al-ʿAbidin (p), Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (p), and Imam Jafar al-Sadiq (p). Several wives of the Prophet (pbuh&hp)—including ʿAisha, Hafsa, and Umm Salama—as well as notable companions such as ʿUthman b. Mazun are also buried there. Over the graves of the Imams and many prominent figures, domes and mausoleums were built, which became important sites of visitation for Muslims. These structures were destroyed twice: first in 1220 AH (1806 CE) during the initial Wahhabi control of Madina, and again, more completely, on 8 Shawwal 1344 AH (1925 CE) after their renewed domination of the Hijaz. The second destruction became known as Yawm al-Hadm (“the Day of Demolition”) and is commemorated with mourning, especially among Shia Muslims. Today, al-Baqi remains a focal point of pilgrimage and sorrow.

al-Bayt al-Mamur (البيتُ المَعمور): “The inhabited or frequented house”; a celestial sanctuary mentioned in the Qur’an, parallel to the Kabah in the heavens.

al-Hajar al-Aswad (الحَجَرُ الأسود): The Black Stone, set into the eastern corner of the Kabah in Mecca. It is revered in Islamic tradition as a sacred stone touched and kissed by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) during the rites of Hajj and ʿUmrah. Pilgrims customarily seek to touch or gesture toward it while performing tawaf (circumambulation).

al-Hakim al-Shari (الحاكم الشرعي): Religious Authority; a qualified Islamic legal scholar who has attained the level of ijtihad, capable of deriving rulings from the Qur’an and hadith, distinguished by piety, loyalty, and superior knowledge compared to other jurists of his time.

al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib (p)(الحسن بن علي بن أبي طالب): Known as “al-Sibt al-Akbar” (“the elder grandson”), he was the second Imam in Shia Islam and the elder grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) through his daughter Fatimah (p). He was born in Medina in the year 3 AH / 625 CE. His Imamate lasted about ten years (40–50 AH / 661–670 CE), following the martyrdom of his father Imam ʿAli (p). Imam Hasan (p) is remembered for his peace treaty with Muawiyah to preserve the unity of the Muslim community. He was poisoned and attained martyrdom in Medina in 50 AH / 670 CE, and is buried in al-Baqi cemetery.

al-Husayn ibn ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (p)(الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب): Known as “al-Sibt al-Asghar” (“the younger grandson”), he was the third Imam in Shia Islam and the second grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) through his daughter Fatimah (p). He was born in Medina in 4 AH / 626 CE. His Imamate lasted about ten years (50–61 AH / 670–680 CE) following the martyrdom of his brother Imam Hasan (p). Imam Husayn (p) is remembered for the uprising of ʿAshura and his tragic martyrdom in Karbala on the 10th of Muharram in 61 AH / 680 CE, undertaken to revive justice and resist Umayyad oppression. He was martyred in Karbala and buried there.

Ali ibn Abi Talib (p) (علي بن أبي طالب): The first Imam, cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), and the fourth caliph according to Sunni tradition.

Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Sajjad Zayn al-Abidin (p) (علي بن الحسين السّجّاد زين العابدين): The fourth Imam in the Shi’a tradition, also known as Imam Zayn al-ʿAbidin.

Ali ibn Muhammad al-Hadi (p) (علي بن محمد الهادي): The tenth Imam in the Shi’a tradition, known for his title al-Hadi (the Guide).

Ali ibn Musa al-Rida (p) (علي بن موسى الرضا): The eighth Imam in the Shi’a tradition, known for his title al-Rida (the Contented).

al-Jumu’ah (الجُمُعة): Literal meaning: “gathering” or “assembly.” Technical meaning (Islamic usage): Friday, the weekly day of rest and mercy in Islam, is designated as a day of communal prayer. The Friday congregational prayer (salat al-jumuah) is emphasized in the Holy Qur’an (al-Jumuah: 9) and holds special spiritual significance. 

al-Ka’bah (الكعبة): Literal meaning: “cube”; a structure with four sides. Technical meaning (Islamic belief and history): the cubic sacred House of Allah, built by Prophet Ibrahim (p) and his son Ismail (p) more than 3000 years ago in Mecca. It is the qiblah (direction of prayer) for Muslims worldwide and the focal point of the hajj pilgrimage. The Holy Qur’an mentions its construction and sanctity (al-Baqarah: 125 -127).

Allah (الله): The Arabic name for God—glory be to Him, there is no god but He. “Allah” is the unique and supreme Divine name, encompassing all attributes of perfection and majesty.

al-Madina (المدينة): Literal meaning: “city.” Technical meaning (Islamic history): originally known as “Yathrib,” it was later renamed “Madinat al-Nabi” (“the City of the Prophet”) after the Prophet’s Hijra (622 CE), and afterward became known simply as Madina. It lies about 210 miles (340 km) north of Mecca. Madina became the political and spiritual center of the early Muslim community, the site of the Prophet’s Mosque (al-Masjid al-Nabawi) and his burial place, and is today the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca. Along with Mecca and Jerusalem—the first qibla (direction of prayer) of Muslims—it is regarded as one of the three sanctuaries (haram) of Islam. Within it lies the cemetery of al-Baqi, where many prominent figures of Islam are buried.

al-Mubahala (المُباهلة): Commemorates the event of Mubahala, when the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) invoked a mutual curse with a Christian delegation from Najran to settle a theological dispute. This event is referenced in the Quran in Surah Al-Imran (3:61). Eid al-Mubahala is observed on the 24th day of Dhu al-Hijja.

al-Musa bihi (الْمُوصَى بِه): Property bequeathed in a will; all possessions owned by the testator at the time of death that are subject to distribution, including tangible assets (e.g., land, buildings, money, stocks, vehicles) and intangible or spiritual directives (e.g., Quran recitation, pilgrimage to holy shrines).

al-Musa lahu (الْمُوْصَى لَه): “Legatee”; the person or entity designated to receive a portion of the bequest, such as an heir, charitable organization, or orphanage.

al-Musi (المُوصي): “Testator”; an individual who makes a will to manage the distribution of their estate after death, subject to legal and religious conditions.

al-Nadhir (الناظِر): “Supervisor”; In Islamic will contexts, al-nadhir is a person appointed to oversee the executor’s actions and ensure the proper implementation of the will. There are two main types: the Overseeing Supervisor (with authority to monitor and intervene) and the Consulting Supervisor (who offers advice without binding authority). This role is significant when the heirs include minors or vulnerable individuals.

al-Rayyan (الرَّيّان): Literally means “well-hydrated” or “fully quenched.” It is one of the gates of Paradise, specifically reserved for those who fast regularly, symbolizing the reward and relief awaiting those who endured thirst during fasting.

al-Safa (الصَّفا): Literally means “purity” or “clarity.” It refers to a small hill located within the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram) in Makkah, marking the starting point of the ritual say between Safa and Marwah during hajj and ʿumrah. In the Qur’an (al-Baqarah: 158), both Safa and Marwah are mentioned as among the symbols of Allah.

al-Wali / Wali (الوَلي): “Guardian”; someone who is entrusted to manage someone else’s affairs, especially those of a minor, a child, or an Islamic society, all under Islamic laws. He shall be one of these three people: the father, the paternal grandfather, or the current legitimate jurist. Awliaa (أولياء): Plural of Wali. Also means the close servants of Allah and spiritual protectors. In Shia Islam, the term often refers specifically to the Twelve Imams (PBUT), who are considered the rightful successors of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp).

al-Wasi (الوصي): “Executor”; the person or persons appointed by the testator, or explicitly named in the will, to execute, administer, and distribute the estate according to the will, and also known as an administrator or trustee.

al-Watan (الْوَطَنُ): “Hometown.” There are different types of hometown according to Islamic jurisprudence:  al-Watan al-Asli (الْوَطَنُ الْأصْلي): Hometown of origin. Also; Watan al-iqamah (وَطَنُ الْإقَامَة): Domicile of temporary stay, and al-Watan al-itikhadhi (الْوَطَنُ الإتِّخَاذي): A place where a person plans to stay long-term for work, school, summer or spring vacations, or similar purposes, even if they do not own property or a home there. Furthermore, al-Watan al-Sharʿi (الوطن الشرعي): Islamic domicile; a place a person considers their home, either where they were born, where they live permanently, or where they plan to reside for ten days or more.

Amanah (أمانة): Literally means “trust” or “deposit.” In Islamic usage, it refers both to the moral and legal duty of returning trusts to their rightful owners and to the broader notion of responsibility. The Qur’an states: “Indeed, Allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due” (al-Nisa 4:58). Another verse—“Indeed, We offered the trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they declined to bear it and feared it; yet man undertook it” (al-Ahzab 33:72)—underscores another dimension of the concept, which exegetes commonly interpret as human free will and responsibility.

Amir al-Mu’mineen (أمير المؤمنين): Literally “Commander of the Faithful,” is a distinguished title referring primarily to Imam Ali (p), the first Imam in Shia Islam and the fourth Caliph in Sunni tradition. It signifies both spiritual and political authority over the community of believers (mu’minin). In Shia theology, this title is uniquely reserved for Imam Ali (p), who is recognized for his piety, wisdom, and close kinship with the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).

Aqiqa (عقيقة): “Sacrifice”; an Islamic tradition of sacrificing an animal on the occasion of a child’s birth. It is recommended (mustahabb) that if this ritual was not performed for a person at the time of their birth, they may perform it on their own behalf later for protection. The meat of the sacrificed animal should be distributed among the poor and needy or cooked and shared in a meal with invited believers.

Aql (عَقْل): “Sanity,” “intellect,” or “reason.” In Islamic philosophy and theology, ʿaql refers to the faculty of rational understanding and sound judgment, enabling a person to discern right from wrong and to make ethical decisions. According to narrations, it is the first creation of God.

Arafah (عَرَفة): The ninth day of Dhul-Hijjah. It is a significant day in Islam, especially for pilgrims performing Hajj, who gather on the plain of Arafah to perform prayers and supplications. Standing at Arafah (Wuquf) is considered the most important ritual of the Hajj pilgrimage.

Arafat (عَرَفات): An area located about 25 kilometers (approximately 15.5 miles) from Mecca. It is the plain where pilgrims gather on the ninth day of Dhul-Hijjah during the Hajj pilgrimage to perform the ritual of standing (Wuquf), which is considered the most important part of the Hajj. 

Asbab al-Nuzul (أسباب النزول): Literally “causes/reasons and circumstances of revelation”; refers to the historical contexts and specific situations in which Qur’anic verses were revealed, aiding exegetes in clarifying their meaning and application.

Ashab al-Kisa (أصحاب الكِساء): Literally “the People of the Cloak”; refers to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), Imam ʿAli (p), Lady Fatima (p), Imam al-Hasan (p), and Imam al-Husayn (p), who were gathered under the Prophet’s cloak in the well-known Hadith al-Kisa. This narration affirms their purity as referenced in Qur’an 33:33 (Ayat al-Tathir).

Ashura (عاشوراء): The 10th day of Muharram marks the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (p) in the Battle of Karbala (680 CE). For Shia Muslims, it symbolizes the fight for justice against tyranny and is observed with mourning and reflection.

Asma Allah al-Husna (أسماء الله الحُسنى): Literally “the most beautiful names of Allah”; refers to the divine attributes and names of God. This expression occurs four times in the Qur’an, including: “To Allah belong the Most Beautiful Names, so call upon Him by them” (al-Araf 7:180). These names are mentioned throughout the Holy Qur’an and also appear in various supplications, most notably Dua Jawshan al-Kabir.

Asr (عَصْر): “The afternoon,” and also the name of the afternoon prayer (Salat al-ʿAsr), which is one of the five obligatory daily prayers in Islam. Also, Asr al-Ghaybah (عصر الغَيبة): The era of occultation.” In Shia belief, it refers to the period during which the Twelfth Imam, al-Mahdi (ʿaj), is hidden from public view. This era is divided into two stages: the Minor Occultation (al-ghaybah al-sughra, 874–941 CE, lasting about 67 years), during which he communicated with the Shia through four special deputies—ʿUthman ibn Said al-ʿAmri, Muhammad ibn ʿUthman, Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti, and ʿAli ibn Muhammad al-Samari. The second stage, the Major Occultation (al-ghaybah al-kubra), began with the death of the fourth deputy and continues until his reappearance.

Ayah (آية): Literally means “a sign,” and its plural form is Ayat (آيات). Terminologically, it refers to a sign from Allah or a verse of the Holy Qur’an.

Ayat al-Ahkam (آيات الأحكام): “Verses of rulings”; Qur’anic verses that serve as the basis for deriving Islamic legal rulings (ahkam sharʿiyyah), such as those concerning prayer, fasting, zakat, inheritance, and transactions.

Ayat al-Kursi (آية الكرسي): Verse 255 of Surah Al-Baqarah in the Qur’an. It is one of the most important and well-known verses, often recited for protection and blessings.

Ayyam al-Bid (أيّام البِيْض): Literally “the white days,” so called because the nights are illuminated by the full moon. They refer to the 13th, 14th, and 15th of each lunar month, on which fasting is recommended (mustahabb).

Ayyam Allah (أيّام الله): Literally “the Days of Allah”; a Qur’anic expression (Ibrahim 14:5) referring to momentous days in which God’s power, justice, or mercy is made manifest—such as days of divine victory, punishment, or deliverance.

Ayyam al-Tashriq (أيّام التّشرْيق): The term tashriq refers to the traditional practice of sun-drying sacrificial meat. It designates the three days following the Day of Sacrifice (Yawm al-Nahr, the 10th of Dhu al-Hijja), namely the 11th, 12th, and 13th of the month. These days are significant in Islam, especially for pilgrims performing Hajj, as they involve ritual acts such as the stoning of the jamarat.

Ayyam Malumat (أيّام معلومات): This term means “known” or “appointed.” It is a Qur’anic expression (al-Hajj 22:28) referring to the specific days of Dhu al-Hijja associated with Hajj rites. According to most exegetes, these are the 11th, 12th, and 13th of the month (Ayyam al-Tashriq), during which believers are urged to remember Allah and perform acts of worship such as the stoning of the jamarat and distribution of sacrificial meat.

Bada (بَداء): In Shia theology, the term denotes the manifestation of God’s will to human beings in a way not previously known to them, without implying any change in divine knowledge. The Qur’an refers to God’s abrogation and confirmation of decrees: “Allah eliminates what He wills or confirms, and with Him is the Mother of the Book” (al-Rad 13:39).

Baligh (بالِغ): A person who has reached religious “maturity” and is responsible for Islamic obligations. For girls, this occurs after completion of nine lunar years; for boys, at fifteen lunar years, or earlier if signs of puberty appear. The person then becomes responsible for performing religious duties such as daily obligatory prayer and fasting during the month of Ramadan. 

Baraa (بَراءة): A declaration of dissociation or disavowal. In Islamic usage, it refers to disavowal from polytheists and their practices. The Qur’an opens Surat al-Tawbah with this term: “[This is] a declaration of disassociation from Allah and His Messenger to those with whom you had made a treaty among the polytheists” (al-Tawbah 9:1).

Barzakh (بَرْزَخ): A Qur’anic word meaning “barrier” or “partition.” It refers to the state between death and resurrection: “And behind them is a barrier (barzakh) until the Day they are resurrected” (al-Muminun 23:100). It is also used to describe the barrier between bodies of water (al-Rahman 55:20).

Batil (باطل): “Void” or “invalid.” A term used in Islamic jurisprudence to describe an act, contract, or prayer that is null and without legal or religious effect due to failure to meet required conditions. It is also used more generally to mean falsehood.

Bayʿah (بَيعة): Signifying a pledge of allegiance, this term describes the covenant of loyalty given to the Prophet or to leaders in Islamic history. The Qur’an states: “Indeed, those who pledge allegiance to you [O Prophet]—they are actually pledging allegiance to Allah. The hand of Allah is over their hands” (al-Fath 48:10).

Bayt al-Mal (بَيت المال): The “House of Wealth,” a term for the public treasury in Islamic governance where revenues such as zakat, khums, jizyah, and spoils were collected and distributed for the welfare of the community.

Bid’ah (بِدعة): “Innovation in religion”; introducing beliefs or practices not rooted in the Qur’an, Sunnah, or early Islamic tradition. Scholars differ on whether all forms of bida are blameworthy.

Birr (بِرّ): A comprehensive Qur’anic concept encompassing righteousness, piety, and acts of goodness. Among its foremost applications is birr toward parents, emphasized repeatedly in the Qur’an (e.g., Luqman 31:14; al-Ahqaf 46:15). The Qur’an also highlights the station of the Abrar (the truly righteous), declaring: “Indeed, the Abrar will be in bliss” (al-Infitar 82:13). A central definition of birr is given in the verse: “Righteousness is not that you turn your faces toward the east or the west, but [true] righteousness is [in] one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and the prophets, and gives wealth… and establishes prayer and gives zakat…” (al-Baqara 2:177).

Bismillah (بسم الله): The phrase Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim (“In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful”). It appears at the beginning of every surah of the Qur’an except one and is recommended before important acts. The Qur’an itself records it in the letter of Solomon: “Indeed, it is from Solomon, and indeed, it reads: In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful” (al-Naml 27:30).

Dafn (دَفْن): “Burial”; the burial of a Muslim deceased, following the rites and procedures prescribed in Islamic jurisprudence, is a collective obligation (wajib kifayah). This means it is required of all those aware of the death and capable of performing the burial, unless others have already performed it properly according to the required conditions.

Dahwu al-Ard (دَحْوُ الأَرْض): Literally “the spreading of the earth.” An Islamic tradition holds that on this day, the surface of the earth was spread out from beneath the Kabah, making it inhabitable for creation. It is commemorated annually on the 25th of Dhu al-Qadah and is regarded as a day of recommended fasting, prayer, and supplication.

Dawood (داوود): A prophet of Allah mentioned in both the Qur’an and the Old Testament. He was known for his wisdom, just leadership, and beautiful recitation of the Psalms (Zabur).

Dayn (دَيْن): “Debt.” 

Deen (دِين): “Religion”; a complete way of life prescribed by Allah. In Islam, din refers to the faith, beliefs, laws, and practices that guide a Muslim’s relationship with God, self, and society. The term is frequently used in the Qur’an, e.g., “Indeed, the religion in the sight of Allah is Islam” (Al ʿImran 3:19).

Dhabh (ذَبْح): Ritual slaughter of an animal by cutting the throat while invoking the name of Allah; the prescribed method for lawful meat in Islam (Qur’an: al-Hajj 22:36).

Dhakar (ذَكَر): “Male”; in Qur’anic usage, it refers to the male sex (contrasted with female, e.g., Al ʿImran 3:36). In juristic and medical contexts, it can also mean the male organ.

Dhan (ظَنّ): “Assumption or speculation.” The Qur’an warns that relying on dhann can lead to error and sin, as it does not guarantee truth (10:36; 49:12).

Dhihar (ظِهار): A statement by a husband to his wife declaring her to be like his mother, falsely claiming she is forbidden to him for sexual relations. This form of divorce is addressed and regulated in Islamic law, as mentioned in the Qur’an (58:3).

Dhu al-Fiqar (ذو الفقار): The name of Imam ʿAli’s (p) legendary forked sword, given to him by the Prophet (pbuh&hp); it symbolizes justice and divine support.

Dhu al-Hijja (ذو الحجّة): The 12th and last month of the Islamic calendar, during which the Hajj pilgrimage takes place.

Dhu al-Jinah (ذو الجناح): The horse of Imam al-Husayn (p) at Karbala; remembered in the commemoration of ʿAshura.

Dhu al-Nun (ذو النّون): “Man of the Fish,” a Qur’anic title for Prophet Yunus (Jonah, p), who was swallowed by the whale (al-Anbiya 21:87).

Dhu al-Qadah (ذو القعدة): The eleventh month of the Islamic lunar calendar. It is one of the four sacred months (al-ashhur al-hurum) in which fighting and bloodshed are prohibited (see al-Tawbah: 36). The name Dhu al-Qadah literally means “the possessor of sitting,” reflecting that it was traditionally a time when people refrained from travel and warfare, remaining at home in preparation for the pilgrimage season that follows in Dhu al-Hijja. It is a month of peace, reflection, and spiritual readiness.

Dhu al-Qurba (ذو القربى): “Possessors of kinship”; Qur’anic term often referring to relatives entitled to special rights, including in charity and inheritance (al-Nisa 4:8; al-Anfal 8:41).

Dhu al-Rahm (ذو الرَّحْم): “One of kinship”; a person bound by blood relations. Maintaining ties of kinship (silat al-rahm) is a major Islamic moral duty, emphasized in the Qur’an and hadith.

Dinar (دِيْنار): A type of currency historically used in Islamic regions, originally a gold coin during the early Islamic period. Plural is “Dananir.”

Diyya (دِيَة): Financial compensation or reparation paid to the victim or their family in cases of wrongful death or injury under Islamic law.

Dua (دُعَاء): “Supplication or prayer”; an invocation to God for help, guidance, or blessings, which can be made in ritual or personal contexts.

Eid (عِيد): An Islamic holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide.

Eid al-Adha (عيد الاضحى): The “Feast of Sacrifice,” commemorating Prophet Ibrahim’s (p) willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to God. It is observed annually on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijja, during the days of Hajj, and is marked by the ritual sacrifice of an animal, prayer, and acts of charity.

Eid al-Fitr (عِيد الفِطر): The celebration marking the end of the month of Ramadan, observed on the 1st day of Shawwal.

Eid al-Ghadeer (عِيد الغدير): A major Islamic celebration observed on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijja, commemorating the event of Ghadeer Khumm (غدیر خم), where Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him and his family) officially designated Imam Ali (peace be upon him) as his successor and the guardian of the Muslim community.

Estimnaa’ (اسْتِمْناء): “Masturbation,” or self-stimulation of the genitals for sexual pleasure, can occur in both males and females and may lead to ejaculation or orgasm. In males, ejaculation usually involves the discharge of semen. It is considered haram (religiously prohibited) and invalidates the fast (sawm).

Estitaah (استطاعة): Linguistically, it means “the ability or capacity to perform something.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it specifically refers to having the physical, financial, and logistical means to perform Hajj. According to Islamic teachings, Hajj is obligatory only for those who possess this ability and can travel safely without undue hardship. (Surah Al-Imran:97)

Fahwa (فَحْوَى): Reasonable appropriate usage based on tacit agreement.

Fajr (فَجْر): is dawnand denotes Subhe-Sadiq, the prime time for prayer. There are two types of Fajr: Fajr al-kadhib (الفَجْرُ الكاذِب): The false dawn; a vertical light on the horizon that appears before the true dawn (al-fajr al-sadiq), and does not mark the time for prayer. And, Fajr al-sadiq (الفَجْرُ الصّادِق): Dawn when fajr prayer commences.

Faqih (فقيه): “A jurist”; an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) qualified to derive legal (religious) rulings from the Holy Qur’an, the Sunnah, consensus, and reason. In Shia usage, the term often refers to a scholar recognized for authority in issuing fatwas and guiding religious practice.

Faridah (فريضة): Literally means: “something prescribed,” “allotted,” or “decreed.” In the Qur’an, it refers to a duty or obligation that God has firmly established, especially in matters of worship, inheritance, and social responsibility (see al-Nisa: 11, 24; al-Taubah: 60). In Islamic jurisprudence, faridah is used synonymously with wajib—that which is legally and divinely obligatory. The term emphasizes that such duties are not merely recommended acts but binding commands ordained by God. Examples of faridah include the five daily prayers (salah), fasting in the month of Ramadan, and the payment of alms (zakah).

Farsakh (فَرسَخ): A traditional measure of distance; approximately 4.4 kilometers (about 3 miles).

Fatiha (فاتحة): The opening chapter of the Holy Qur’an, recited in the first two units of the daily obligatory prayers.

Fatima / Fatemah (فاطمة) (p): The lady of the women of the worlds (سيدة نساء العالمين), daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), wife of Imam ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (p), and the mother of Imam al-Hasan and Imam al-Husayn (pbut).

Fatwa (فتوى): A religious ruling issued by a jurist (religious authority) called Marja al-Taqlid, based on the canonical sources of jurisprudence (the Holy Qur’an, the Sunnah of the Prophet and the Infallible Imams, …), and binding on that scholar’s followers.

Fidya (فِدية): Financial compensation in lieu of fasting. Fidya substitutes for fasts that a person cannot perform due to chronic illness, pregnancy (after a certain stage), or due to difficulty from old age. Fidya is the feeding of one poor person with an amount that is not less than 750 grams or 1.65 pounds of wheat.

Fiqh (فِقه): Literally “understanding” or “precise comprehension”; in Islamic scholarship, it denotes jurisprudence, the central discipline of deriving and systematizing divine law from the Holy Qur’an, the Sunnah, consensus, and reason.

Fitna (فِتنة): Literally “trial” or “test”; in Islamic usage, it can denote tribulation, discord, or civil strife. The Holy Qur’an states: “al-fitna is worse than killing” (al-Baqara 2:191).

Foroo’ al-Din (فروع الدين): The branches of Islam (prayers, fasting, pilgrimage, etc.)

Ghadeer / Ghadir (غَدير): The name of a place near Mecca, and the great holiday named after the event that occurred at that place.

Ghasb (غَصْب): “Usurpation”; the unlawful seizure or appropriation of another’s property or rights without consent. According to jurists (fuqaha), being present in a usurped place is forbidden, and performing prayer there is invalid.

Ghufaylah (غُفَيْلَة): The “Prayer of Ghufaylah” is a recommended (mustahabb) two-unit prayer performed between Maghrib and ʿIsha. It is called Ghufaylah (“heedlessness”) because many people are inattentive to worship at this time. In Shia tradition it is strongly emphasized. In the first unit, after Surat al-Fatihah, verse 87 of Surat al-Anbiya is recited; in the second unit, after al-Fatihah, verse 59 of Surat al-Anʿam is recited. The prayer includes invocations seeking forgiveness and divine mercy.

Ghusl (غُسْل): The complete ritual washing of the body with water—either by sequentially washing the parts of the body from the head and neck to the rest (as in taking a shower) or by immersing the entire body in water (as in a river). Some forms of ghusl are obligatory, such as the ghusl of janabah and the ghusl of touching a corpse (ghusl mass al-mayyit), which require an intention, while others are recommended, such as the ghusl of Friday.

Hadath (حدَث): A state of ritual impurity that prevents the performance of certain acts of worship until purification is carried out. From a jurisprudential perspective, it is categorized to two levels: Hadath al-asghar (حدث أصغر): Minor ritual impurity caused by things like urination, defecation, passing wind, or sleep. It is removed by performing wudu (partial ablution). And, Hadath al-akbar (حدث أكبر): Major ritual impurity resulting from causes such as janabah, menstruation (hayd), or postnatal bleeding (nifas). It requires ghusl (full ritual bath) for purification.

Hadd al-tarrakhuss (حَدُّ التَّرَخُّص). The point outside of a town where its residents, including those who live on its outskirts, cannot see a traveler, nor can the traveler see them, or where the buildings are no longer visible, which is usually 2 to 3 miles away from the town, but also depends on the geographical location. It is the point at which a person becomes a “traveler” from a jurisprudential perspective. 

Hadith (pl. Ahadith) (حديث/أحاديث): Literally means “speech,” “report,” or “something new.” In early usage, what was heard from the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) or the infallible Imams (pbut) was considered hadith because it was “new” knowledge to the listener, who would then transmit it as a fresh report. In Islamic terminology, it refers to the narration of the sayings, actions, and tacit approvals of the Prophet (pbuh&hp) and the Imams (pbut). The study of hadith (ʿilm al-hadith) developed into one of the central disciplines of Islamic scholarship and remains a foundation for jurisprudence, Qur’anic exegesis (tafsir), theology, ethics, and the transmission of religious knowledge within Islamic culture.

Hajj (حجّ): The major Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, obligatory once in a lifetime for every Muslim who is physically and financially able and has secure access to the route (Al ʿImran 3:97). Hajj is of four types: 1) Hajj al-Ifrad (حجّ الإفراد): A form of pilgrimage in which only Hajj is performed and ʿUmrah is not included in the same journey. This form is prescribed for those residing in Mecca or its surrounding areas. 2) Hajj al-Qiran (حجّ القِران): A form of pilgrimage where Hajj and ʿUmrah are performed together with a single intention and in one state of ihram, typically for those living near Mecca. And 3) Hajj al-Tamattu (حجّ التّمتّع): A type of pilgrimage that is obligatory for those living outside the boundaries of Mecca. It consists of performing ʿUmrat al-Tamattu first, followed by the Hajj in the same year. This is the form of pilgrimage performed by the majority of pilgrims. This form of Hajj is obligatory for most Muslims.

Halal (حلال): A jurisprudential term meaning permissible or lawful under Islamic law. It applies to actions, foods, drinks, contracts, and other matters deemed allowed by the Shariah. In contrast to haram (forbidden), halal forms part of the broader classification of Islamic legal rulings known as al-ahkam al-khamsah al-taklifiyyah (the five legal rulings: wajib/obligatory, haram/forbidden, mandub/recommended, makruh/disliked, and mubah/neutral). In common usage, the term often refers specifically to food and drink that meet Islamic dietary requirements.

Halq (حَلْق): To shave the hair of the head. In Islamic law, it specifically refers to the ritual shaving of the head performed by male pilgrims during Hajj or ʿUmrah, marking the completion of certain rites. It symbolizes humility and renewal. The Qur’an mentions this act: “… You will surely enter al-Masjid al-Haram,… with your heads shaved (muhalliqin)” (al-Fath 48:27).

Haq (حق): Literally meaning “truth,” “right,” or “due.” Haq (حق) is the right or claim to something. In the Qur’an, the term appears with various meanings: the ultimate truth of God (Yunus 10:32), justice and fairness (al-Anʿam 6:115), and the rightful claim of individuals (al-Nisa 4:7). In Islamic thought, haqq in the sense of a person’s right or entitlement stands in relation to taklif (duty or obligation): every right implies a corresponding duty, whether toward God, oneself, or others. Some matters have a dual nature; for example, the custody (hadanah) of a child is both the right of the parents and their obligation.

Haram (حَرام): A jurisprudential term meaning “prohibited” or “unlawful” in Islamic law. It applies to any act, food, drink, contract, or behavior explicitly forbidden by the Shariah. Committing it is considered a sin, while avoiding it is obligatory. Haram, together with halal, belongs to the overall framework of al-ahkam al-khamsah al-taklifiyyah (the five legal rulings: wajib, haram, mandub, makruh, mubah), which categorize all human actions in Islamic jurisprudence.

Harun (هارون): Aaron. The brother of Prophet Musa (Moses, p) and himself a Prophet of Allah, mentioned frequently in the Qur’an (e.g., al-Baqara 2:248; Ta Ha 20:30). He was chosen as Musa’s helper and deputy, entrusted with guiding the Children of Israel during Musa’s absence. Harun is remembered for his eloquence and support. In Islamic tradition, a well-known hadith of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) states to Imam ʿAli (p): “You are to me as Harun was to Musa, except that there is no prophet after me.”

Haydh (حَيْض): Menstrual bleeding of females — beginning at bulugh and continuing until menopause — is regarded in Islamic jurisprudence as a natural condition with specific legal rulings. During hayd, a female is exempt from certain acts of worship such as salah (ritual prayer) and sawm (fasting), although missed fasts must be made up later. Fiqh manuals discuss in detail the minimum and maximum duration of hayd, its distinction from other types of bleeding, and the related rulings on purity and worship.

Hidad (حِدَاد): The prescribed state of mourning observed by a widow after the death of her husband. During this period, which lasts four lunar months and ten days (al-Baqara 2:234), she must refrain from adornment, perfume, and beautification. The purpose of hidad is to honor the marital bond, clarify possible pregnancy, and uphold social and legal considerations in Islamic law.

Hijab (حجاب): Literally meaning “cover” or “screen.” In Islamic usage, it refers to the principle of modesty and the prescribed separation between non-mahram men and women. This includes covering the body with proper clothing and maintaining modest behavior in interaction. The Qur’an mentions hijab in different contexts, including the verse: “And when you ask [the Prophet’s wives] for something, ask them from behind a hijab (curtain)” (al-Ahzab 33:53).

Hijr Ismail (حِجر إسماعيل): A low semi-circular wall adjoining one side of the Kabah, forming an arc. It is considered part of the Kabah itself, and therefore performing tawaf (circumambulation) must be done outside of it. Islamic tradition holds that Hajar (Hagar) and her son Ismail (Ishmael, p) are buried within this space, which is regarded as a place of special sanctity.

Hijra (هِجرة): Literally means “migration” or “departure.” In Islamic history, it refers specifically to the migration of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) from Mecca to Yathrib (later called Madinat al-Nabi, “the Prophet’s city”) due to the growing hostility of the Meccans. The Prophet arrived there on September 20, 622 CE. On the advice of Imam ʿAli (p), ʿUmar—when reproached for not dating documents—adopted this event as the beginning of the Muslim era, counting it as Year 1 and starting from the lunar New Year, the 1st of Muharram 622 CE.

Hilal (هِلال): “Crescent moon.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to the sighting of the new crescent that marks the beginning of each lunar month. The Qur’an states: “They ask you about the crescents. Say, they are measurements of time for the people and for the Hajj” (al-Baqara 2:189). The practice of moon-sighting (istihlal) holds central importance for acts of worship such as fasting in the blessed month of Ramadan, celebrating ʿId al-Fitr, and performing Hajj.

Hira (حِراء): The cave located in the mountain (Jabal) al-Nur, about three miles northeast of Mecca. It is revered as the place where the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) would retreat for worship and reflection before his mission, and where he received the first revelation through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel): “Recite in the name of your Lord who created” (al-ʿAlaq 96:1).

Hudud (حُدود): Plural of hadd (حَدّ), meaning “limit” or “boundary.” In Islamic law, it refers to the fixed and explicitly prescribed punishments established by God for certain major crimes such as theft, adultery, and false accusation. The Qur’an emphasizes these as divine boundaries: “These are the limits (hudud) of Allah, so do not transgress them” (al-Baqara 2:229; al-Tawbah 9:97). The concept of hudud underscores that these penalties are not subject to personal discretion but are divinely mandated. In Sunni jurisprudence, their implementation under proper legal authority is upheld as obligatory, whereas within Shia thought, there exists a scholarly view that the application of hudud is suspended (tatil) during the occultation of the infallible Imam, due to the absence of divinely guided authority.

Hujjatu ʾl-Islam (حُجّة الإسلام): An honorific title historically conferred upon eminent scholars of Islam. Literally meaning “the proof of Islam,” it refers to a scholar whose knowledge and piety stand as testimony to the truth of the faith. In contemporary Shia usage, the title is commonly applied to students of the hawza who have not yet reached the rank of ijtihad (jurisprudential authority) and therefore are not addressed as Ayatullah.

ʿIbadah (عِبادة): Literally “devotion” or “worship.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to acts of servitude and obedience to Allah, including both ritual obligations (such as salah, sawm, zakah, and hajj) and broader acts done with sincere intention for God’s sake. It encompasses both external acts of worship (ʿibadat) and inner states of sincerity, gratitude, and reliance upon God. The Qur’an defines the very purpose of creation as worship and servitude to God (al-Dhariyat: 56). The prophets are described as the perfect examples of ʿubudiyyah, with the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) being praised as ʿabd Allah (the servant of God).

Ibaha (إباحة): “Permissibility.” A juristic term signifying that an action is religiously neutral—neither obligatory nor forbidden—thus permissible according to Islamic law. It is one of the five rulings (al-ahkam al-khamsah) into which all human actions are classified: obligatory (wajib), prohibited (haram), recommended (mandub), disliked (makruh), and permissible (mubah).

Ibrahim (إبراهيم): Prophet Abraham (p), revered as a patriarch in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. In the Qur’an, he is honored as a prophet and messenger, a model of pure monotheism (hanif), and the one who, together with his son Ismail (p), built the Kabah (al-Baqara 2:125–127).

ʿIddah (عِدّة): “Waiting period.” Literally means “a counted time” or “prescribed term.” In Islamic jurisprudence, ʿiddah refers to the legally required waiting period a woman must observe after the termination of a marriage—by divorce or the husband’s death—before remarrying. The purpose is to ensure clarity of lineage, respect for the previous marriage, and fulfillment of divine command. The Qur’an establishes different durations of ʿiddah according to circumstances (see al-Baqarah : 228, 234; al-Talaq : 1), and its completion (itmam al-ʿiddah) signifies the fulfillment of the prescribed term.

Idtirar (اضطرار): Literally means “necessity” or “dire compulsion.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a situation where a person is compelled by extreme necessity—such as hunger, thirst, or threat to life—to commit an act normally prohibited. In such cases, the prohibition is lifted or eased, as in the Qur’anic allowance to consume otherwise forbidden food when compelled by necessity (al-Baqara 2:173). Unlike ikrah (coercion by others), idtirar arises from external circumstances beyond one’s control.

Iftar (إفطار): Literally means “breaking the fast.” In Islamic practice, it refers to ending the daily fast at sunset during the blessed month of Ramadan, often with dates and water, followed by the evening meal. Islamic teachings strongly emphasize the virtue of providing iftar to those in need, considering it a meritorious act of charity and solidarity.

Ihram (إحرام): From the root h-r-m, meaning “to forbid” or “make sacred.” It is the consecrated state entered into for hajj or ʿumrah, marked by wearing the two-piece white garment for men (while women remain in regular modest dress), reciting the talbiyah, and observing temporary prohibitions on certain acts such as cutting hair or nails, using perfume, or engaging in marital relations.

Ihtidar (احتضار): Literally means “being present.” In Islamic usage, it refers to the final moments of a person’s life, the state of dying, when the soul is about to depart from the body. Islamic tradition emphasizes recommended acts at this time, such as reciting the shahada, turning the dying person towards the qiblah, and reminding them of God’s mercy.

Ihtiyat (احتياط): Literally means “precaution.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a precautionary action taken by a believer when there is doubt or uncertainty about the correctness of a religious duty. For example, this could involve repeating an act of worship (such as prayer or fasting) or performing it in multiple ways to ensure validity. Precaution has two types: Ihtiyat Mustahabb (احتياط مستحب): “Recommended precaution.” In Shia jurisprudence, it refers to a precautionary pronouncement where the jurist suggests an act as preferable but not obligatory. The follower is encouraged, but not required, to follow through. Neglecting it does not entail sin, though observing it brings reward. And, Ihtiyat Wajib / Ihtiyat Wujubi (احتياط واجب/احتياط وجوبي): “Precautionary obligation.” In Shia jurisprudence, it refers to a precautionary ruling where the follower must either act upon the precaution as stated by their marja al-taqlid or follow the fatwa of the second-most learned jurist on that issue.

Ijma (إجماع): Literally “consensus.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to the unanimous agreement of qualified scholars on a Islamic ruling. In Sunni legal theory, ijma is considered a binding source of law alongside the Qur’an and Sunnah. In Shia jurisprudence, ijma is accepted when it reveals the view of the infallible Imam (p).

Ijtihad (اجتهاد): Literally meaning “exertion” or “striving,” ijtihad in Islamic jurisprudence refers to the highest level of scholarly effort by which a qualified jurist (mujtahid) derives legal rulings directly from the sources of Sharia—the Holy Qur’an, authentic hadith (Sunnah), consensus (ijma), and reason (ʿaql). Attaining ijtihad requires mastery of the religious sciences, long years of advanced study in the Islamic seminary (hawzah), and independence in reasoning. Those who reach this level are authorized to issue independent rulings (fatawa).

Ikrah (إكراه): Literally means “compulsion” or “coercion.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a state where a person is forced to act against their will under threat or pressure. Acts performed under ikrah may not carry Islamic legal or moral responsibility, depending on the severity of compulsion, as the Qur’an exempts the coerced from blame in matters of faith (al-Nahl 16:106).

Ila (إيلاء): Literally means “oath.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a husband’s swearing by Allah to abstain from marital intercourse with his wife for a period of four months or more. The Qur’an addresses this in Surat al-Baqara (2:226–227), giving the husband a choice to either resume relations within this period or proceed with divorce.

Imam (إمام): Literally means “leader,” the term in general usage refers to an individual who leads, particularly in religious contexts, such as the leader of congregational prayer. In Shia theology, Imam holds a specific and exalted meaning. It designates the twelve infallible successors of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), beginning with Imam ʿAli (p) and continuing through his descendants until the awaited Imam al-Mahdi (ʿaj). These Imams are regarded as divinely appointed, infallible, and authoritative guides for the ummah.

Imamah (إمامة): “Leadership”; “Imamate.” In Arabic, the term denotes leadership or authority. In Islamic theology, imamah is defined as “the leadership of religion and the world” (al-imamah riasat al-din wa’l-dunya). In Shia theology, imamah refers to the divinely appointed institution of leadership after the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp). The Imam is regarded as infallible (masum), spiritually pure, and the rightful guide of the ummah. Shia belief affirms twelve such Imams, beginning with ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (p) and continuing through his descendants until the awaited Imam al-Mahdi (ʿaj). In Sunni thought, by contrast, imamah is often used in a political-legal sense to denote the caliphate, considered necessary for safeguarding religion and managing worldly affairs.

Iman (إيمان): Literally meaning “belief,” or “faith,” Iman in Islamic theology refers to a deep, inner conviction of the heart beyond outward submission. The Qur’an (al-Hujurat:14) distinguishes Iman from Islam, showing that Faith is a higher stage than mere submission.

Imsak (إمساك): Literally meaning “to withhold,” or “to refrain.” In Islamic practice, imsak refers to abstaining from eating, drinking, and other nullifiers of fasting a few minutes before dawn (fajr). It is observed as a precautionary measure to ensure the validity of the fast, even though the obligatory time of fasting begins strictly at dawn.

In sha Allah (إن شاء الله): Literally means “if Allah wills” or “with the will of God.” It is a phrase used by Muslims when speaking of future intentions or plans, acknowledging that all outcomes are subject to Allah’s will. The Holy Qur’an instructs its use: “And never say of anything, ‘Indeed, I will do that tomorrow,’ except [by adding], ‘If Allah wills’” (al-Kahf 18:23–24).

Injil (إنجيل): Commonly translated as the “Gospel.” In the Holy Qur’an, this term — which appears 12 times — refers specifically to the divine revelation given to Prophet ʿIsa (Jesus, p), not to the entire New Testament in its current form. Muslims believe the original Injil was a heavenly book from Allah containing guidance and light (al-Maidah 5:46), but its original text has not been fully preserved throughout history.

Iqamah (إقامة): Literally means “establishing,” or “setting upright.” In Islamic terminology, the word is closely associated with prayer, as the Holy Qur’an repeatedly commands “aqimu al-salah” (establish the prayer), e.g., al-Baqara 2:43, al-Nisa 4:77. This shows that in the Qur’anic usage, prayer is not merely to be recited or read, but to be established as a complete act of devotion with its proper conditions. In ritual practice, iqamah also refers to the short call that immediately precedes the start of prayer, marking the transition from preparation to the actual performance.

Irtimasi (ارتماسي): Literally from irtimas, meaning “immersion” or “submerging.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a type of ritual wash (ghusl) performed by immersing the entire body in water at once, as opposed to ghusl tartibi (sequential wash), where the body is washed in order. Both forms are valid when performed with the intention (niyyah) of ritual purification.

ʿIsa (عيسى): Jesus, the son of Mary, born miraculously without a father in Bethlehem, Palestine. He is one of the greatest prophets of Allah mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and is regarded as one of the Ulu al-ʿAzm (possessors of firm resolve) messengers, alongside Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, and Muhammad (pbut). His name appears 25 times in the Holy Qur’an, and he is honored with the title Kalimatullah (“Word of Allah”) (Al ʿImran 3:45). The scripture revealed to him was the Injil (Gospel) (al-Maidah 5:46). The Holy Qur’an highlights his miracles by Allah’s permission: speaking in the cradle (Maryam 19:29–30), healing the blind and the lepers, raising the dead (Al ʿImran 3:49), and forming a bird from clay and giving it life (al-Maidah 5:110). It also emphasizes that he was neither killed nor crucified, but rather Allah raised him up to Himself (al-Nisa 4:157–158).

ʿIsha (عشاء): Literally means “nightfall” or “the coming of darkness.” The Holy Qur’an uses the term in this sense, as in the verse about the brothers of Prophet Yusuf: “They came to their father at nightfall, weeping” (Yusuf 12:16). In Islamic practice, ʿisha refers to the last of the five daily obligatory prayers, performed after the disappearance of twilight until middle of the night. The Qur’an also mentions the general times of prayer, including ʿisha, in verses such as: “Establish prayer at the decline of the sun until the darkness of the night” (al-Isra 17:78).

Ismail (إسماعيل): Known in English as Ishmael, he was the son of the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim, p) and Hajar. Regarded in Islamic tradition as a prophet and an ancestor of the Arabs, he is closely associated with Mecca, the building of the Kabah alongside his father, and the legacy of sacrifice commemorated in the rites of Hajj. The Qur’an recounts the story of Abraham’s vision in which he was commanded to sacrifice his son (al-Saffat 37:102–107). While the son is not named in the verses, Islamic tradition and most exegetes identify him as Ismail rather than Isaac (Ishaq). The verse (al-Saffat 37:102) highlights the complete submission and obedience of Ismail (p), who said to his father: “O my father, do as you are commanded; you will find me, God willing, among the steadfast.”

Isra (إسراء): Literally means “night journey.” The 17th surah of the Holy Qur’an is called Bani Israil, also known as al-Isra, because its opening verse refers to the miraculous night journey of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), when, by divine power, he was taken from al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca to al-Masjid al-Aqsa in Jerusalem. The event of Isra is closely connected to the Miraj (ascension), mentioned in Surat al-Najm.

Israf (إسراف): Literally means “excess” or “wastefulness.” In Islamic usage, it refers to exceeding the proper bounds, going beyond moderation, or indulging in extravagance. The Qur’an condemns israf in several verses, linking it to both material waste and moral excess: “Indeed, the wasteful are brothers of the devils” (al-Isra 17:27). The standard for israf is determined by Sharia (religious impermissibility), sound reason, and by social norms of moderation.

Istibra (استبراء): Literally means “seeking clearance.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to a recommended act performed by men after urination to ensure that no drops of urine remain in the urethra, thus avoiding impurity (najasa) and ensuring the validity of subsequent acts of worship such as prayer.

Istifta (استفتاء): Literally means “seeking a fatwa.” In Islamic usage, it refers to the formal act of asking a qualified jurist (mufti or marja al-taqlid) for a ruling on a jurisprudential question. The written or oral reply provided is known as a fatwa.

Istighfar (استغفار): Literally means “seeking forgiveness.” In Islamic usage, it refers to asking Allah for pardon of sins, either verbally (most often by saying astaghfirullah) or through acts of repentance. The Qur’an repeatedly encourages istighfar, associating it with divine mercy, removal of hardship, and spiritual purification (e.g., Nuh 71:10). It also praises those who seek forgiveness in the pre-dawn hours (al-mustaghfirin bil-ashar), highlighting sincerity and humility in turning back to God (Al ʿImran 3:17).

Istihada (استحاضة): “Non-menstrual bleeding.” Literally means “flow” or “irregular bleeding.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to non-menstrual vaginal bleeding experienced by women, distinct from hayd (menstruation) and nifas (post-partum bleeding). It is categorized into three types: 1) Istihada Sughra (استحاضة صغرى): Light non-menstrual bleeding. The rulings usually require wudu for each obligatory prayer, without the obligation of ghusl. 2) Istihada Wusta (استحاضة وسطى): Medium-level non-menstrual bleeding. The rulings require wudu for each prayer and sometimes ghusl, depending on juristic interpretation. 3) Istihada Kubra (استحاضة كبرى): Heavy non-menstrual bleeding. This category requires more rigorous ritual purification, often including both wudu and ghusl for valid prayer.

Istihalah (استحالة): Literally means “transformation,” or “change of state.” In Islamic jurisprudence, istihalah refers to a complete transformation of a substance into another, such that—according to common perception (ʿurf)—it is no longer regarded as the original substance. This transformation need not be a chemical change; rather, it is defined by the customary understanding that the original form or identity has entirely changed. Examples include impure wood burning into ash, flesh decomposing into dust, or a dog’s body that falls into a salt pit and becomes salt. In all such cases, the new substance is considered pure (tahir), even if the original matter was impure (najis).

Istihlak (استهلاك): “Subsumption”; “Dissolution.” In Islamic jurisprudence, istihlak refers to the state in which a very small amount of one substance (A) becomes dissolved and deteriorated in a much larger quantity of another substance (B), to the point that substance A is no longer conventionally recognized as existing. For example, ethyl alcohol is prohibited because of its intoxicating effect. However, if it is present in a medicine in a very small proportion—such as less than about 3 percent—certain jurists who rule that it is ritually pure rule that it is not prohibited, since it is subsumed within the larger mixture and no longer has the capacity to intoxicate. By contrast, mixtures with higher percentages (e.g., 10 percent or more) retain the effect of intoxication and thus remain prohibited.

Istihsan (استحسان): Literally means “considering something good.” In jurisprudence, particularly within the Hanafi school, it refers to juristic preference—the principle of departing from a strict analogy (qiyas) in favor of a ruling that better serves justice, equity, or public interest. Shia jurists generally do not accept istihsan as an independent source of law, emphasizing instead the authority of the Qur’an, Sunnah, reason, and the guidance of the Imams (pbut).

Istikharah (استخارة): Literally meaning “to seek goodness,” istikharah in Islamic practice refers to supplicating to God for what is best when faced with an important decision. It may be performed simply through prayer and reliance upon divine inspiration, or more formally by seeking an indication through the Holy Qur’an or with prayer beads (tasbih). The practice emphasizes entrusting one’s affairs to God, seeking clarity, and avoiding personal confusion or misjudgment.

Istishhab (اسْتِصْحاب): “Presumption of continuity.” Literally meaning “to carry along,” istishhab in Islamic legal theory (usul al-fiqh) refers to the principle of presuming the continuation of a prior state until evidence proves otherwise (even if doubt currently exists). For example, if a person is certain they had performed ablution (wudu), they continue to presume themselves in a state of purity until it is established with certainty that it has been nullified. Similarly, one who is certain their clothes are pure continues to treat them as pure until proven otherwise. Istishhab is one of the four usul ʿamaliyyah (practical legal principles), alongside baraah (exemption), ihtiyat (precaution), and takhyir (choice).

Itikaf (اعتكاف): “Spiritual retreat.” Itikaf literally signifies staying in a place with persistence. In Islamic practice, it refers to a devotional retreat consisting of remaining in a mosque for a specified period with the intention of worship. Itikaf is often observed during the last ten nights of the blessed month of Ramadan, though it may also be performed at other times. Conditions include fasting during the days of retreat, remaining within the mosque, and dedicating one’s time to prayer, Qur’an recitation, and remembrance of God. The Qur’an mentions those who “remain in devotion in the mosques” (al-Baqarah: 187) and refers to making the Kabah a place of retreat and worship (al-Baqarah: 125)

Izar (إزار): Literally means “cover,” or “wrap.” In Islamic jurisprudence, izar refers to one of the three obligatory pieces of the burial shroud (kafan) used to cover the body of the deceased. It serves as the full lower garment, wrapping the body from the chest (or shoulders) down to the feet. The izar is accompanied by the qamis (shirt) and the lifafah (outer sheet), completing the three-piece shrouding required in Islamic burial rites.

Ja’far ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq (p) (جعفر بن محمد الصادق): Known as Imam al-Sadiq (p), he was the sixth Imam of the Shia. Born in Medina in 83 AH/702 CE and martyred in 148 AH/765 CE, he was the son of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (p) and a direct descendant of Imam ʿAli (p). He is revered for his profound scholarship, piety, and role in spreading Islamic sciences. Under his guidance, numerous students—including jurists, theologians, and scientists—studied, and he is regarded as the teacher of both Abu Hanifa and Malik b. Anas. The Jafari school of law in Shia Islam is attributed to his teachings. Among his most celebrated traditions are his sayings on reason (ʿaql), faith (iman), and the oneness of God (tawhid), which remain foundational in Shia theology and ethics.

Jallal (جلّال): The condition of an otherwise muhallal (permissible) animal that has almost exclusively consumed human feces for at least two consecutive days. An animal is considered jallal only if it eats human feces—not the feces of any other animal and not any other impure (najis) substance. In Islamic jurisprudence, the meat and milk of a jallal animal are deemed prohibited (haram) until the animal undergoes istibra—a period of being kept away from impurity and fed with pure food until its body is considered purified. The specific duration of istibra differs for each type of jallal animal and is mentioned in the traditions (riwayat).

Janabah (جَنَابَة): Literal meaning: “distance,”or “remoteness.” Technical meaning (Islamic jurisprudence): the state of major ritual impurity resulting from sexual intercourse (penetration), even if no ejaculation occurs, for either a man or a woman. Entering this state requires the performance of ghusl al-janabah (ritual bathing) before acts of worship such as prayer, fasting, or touching the script of the Holy Qur’an.

Jaridah (جريدة): Literal meaning: “a palm branch,” or “twig.” Technical meaning (Islamic funerary practice): a twig—often from a date palm—placed or buried with the body of the deceased, following certain traditions that view it as a source of blessing or relief for the deceased in the grave.

Jihad (جهاد): Literal meaning: “exertion,” “striving,” or “struggle.” Technical meaning (Islamic point of view): 1) Struggling against the soul that commands evil, against satanic whispers, and against lusts. 2) Armed struggling with enemies in defense of Islam.

Jinn (جِنّ): The Qur’an sometimes uses the word in its literal sense of “hidden or unseen beings,” as in al-Najm: 32 (“when you were embryos hidden in the wombs of your mothers”). In Islamic belief, jinn are created beings, distinct from humans and angels, endowed with intellect and free will, and, like humans, accountable in the Hereafter. The Holy Qur’an frequently mentions them, dedicates an entire surah to them (al-Jinn), and addresses them together with humankind in: “Ya mashar al-jinn wa’l-ins” (O company of jinn and humans) (al-Anʿam: 130; al-Rahman: 33, 56, 74).

Juma (جُماع): Literal meaning: “gathering,” “uniting.” Technical meaning (Islamic jurisprudence): sexual intercourse, i.e., penetration that leads to the state of janabah and necessitates ritual bathing (ghusl al-janabah), regardless of ejaculation.

Jumada al-Akhira (جُمادى الآخِرَة): The sixth month of the Islamic lunar calendar.

Jumada al-Ula (جُمادى الأُولى): The fifth month according to the lunar calendar that Islam adopted and called the “Hijri Calendar”.

Kafan (كفن): Literal meaning: “covering,” “wrapping.” Technical meaning (Islamic funerary practice): the shroud in which a deceased Muslim is wrapped before burial. Islamic law prescribes that the body be washed (ghusl al-mayyit), enshrouded in the kafan, and then prayed over before interment. According to jurisprudential rulings, the kafan consists of three pieces for men (izar – a lower wrap, qamis – a shirt-like cloth, and lifafah – an outer sheet) and also three pieces for women (with slight differences in description, sometimes adding a scarf or breast-cover). The kafan must be pure (tahir) and obtained from lawful (halal) wealth. It is recommended (mustahabb) that the kafan be white.

Kaffarah (pl. kaffarat) (كفّارة): Literally “covering” or “concealing.” In Islamic law, it is an act of expiation prescribed to absolve a sin, compensate for neglecting a duty, or make up for a violation. Forms of kaffarah vary depending on the act, and may include freeing a slave, feeding or clothing the poor, or fasting. The two main types of kaffarah are distinguished according to the gravity of the violation: Kaffarah Kabirah (كفّارة كبيرة): Major expiation imposed for grave violations (e.g., deliberately breaking the fast of Ramadan), often requiring freeing a slave, feeding sixty poor people, or fasting two consecutive months.  Kaffarah Saghirah (كفّارة صغيرة): Minor expiation for lesser violations (e.g., breaking an oath), usually feeding or clothing ten poor people, or, if unable, fasting three consecutive days.

Kafur (كافور): Literal meaning: “camphor, a white crystalline substance with a strong aromatic smell.” Technical meaning (Islamic usage): camphor is mentioned in the Holy Qur’an (al-Insan:5) as a fragrant substance mixed with the drink of the righteous in Paradise. In Islamic funerary practice, it is also used in the hunut (anointing of the deceased) as part of the burial rites, applied to the body at specific points.

Karbala (كربلاء): A holy city in Iraq, revered as the site where Imam al-Husayn (p), the grandson of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), was martyred on ʿAshura (10 Muharram 61 AH/680 CE). It houses the shrines of Imam al-Husayn (p), al-ʿAbbas (p), and their companions, and is among the most important centers of pilgrimage, especially during Arbain.

Khadija (خديجة): Khadija bt. Khuwaylid (d. 10th year after the Prophet’s mission, 619 CE), known with the honorific title Khadija al-Kubra (“the Great Khadija”), was the noble wife of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the mother of Lady Fatima (p). She was the first person to believe in the Prophet and embrace Islam, and she remained unwaveringly loyal and supportive of him throughout her life, sharing her wealth and strength in the early days of the mission. The Qur’an refers to the wives of the Prophet as “Ummahat al-Muminin” (Mothers of the Believers) (al-Ahzab:6), a title that includes Khadija. She passed away in Mecca in the year known as the “Year of Sorrow” (ʿAm al-Huzn), the 10th year of the Prophetic mission, shortly after the death of Abu Talib, the Prophet’s uncle and the father of Imam ʿAli (p). The loss of these two greatest supporters created severe hardship for the Prophet and led to circumstances that eventually forced his migration (hijra) from Mecca. She is buried in the al-Mualla cemetery in Mecca.

Khatm al-Quran (ختم القرآن): Literal meaning: “completion of the Qurʾan.” Technical meaning (Islamic practice): the act of completing a full recitation of the Holy Qurʾan from beginning to end. In the blessed month of Ramadan—the month of the Qurʾan’s revelation—it is customary among believers to divide the Qurʾan into thirty parts (ajza), reciting one part each day so that they complete an entire khatm by the end of the month. Beyond Ramadan, khatm al-Qurʾan is considered a recommended (mustahabb) act, and a testator may include it in their will to be performed on their behalf after death. The khatm may be done once or multiple times, often with the intention of dedicating the spiritual reward (thawab) to the soul of the deceased, as it is believed to bring ease to the experience of the grave and provide it with light and comfort.

Khums (خُمْس): Literal meaning: “one-fifth.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a mandatory tax that should be paid as a religious dues. It is an obligatory financial act of worship in Islam. From a person’s income, after covering all the living expenses of themselves and their family, one-fifth (20%) of whatever remains and is in surplus must be paid. 

Kurr (كُرّ): Literal meaning: “a large measure or quantity.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a specific large amount of water that is not easily rendered impure by contact with najasah (ritual impurity). Jurists define the minimum measure of kurr as approximately 384 liters (about 100 gallons). If water reaches the amount of kurr, it does not become impure by mere contact with impurity unless its color, taste, or smell is changed. In Islamic jurisprudence, water is classified into different types—such as mutlaq (pure, absolute water), mudaf (mixed water), qalil (small quantity), kurr (large quantity), and ma al-jari (running water). Kurr water is thus considered one of the main categories of purifying water.

Labbaik (لبَّیك): Literal meaning: “a response to the call.” Technical meaning (Islamic usage): the devotional phrase recited during the rites of hajj and ʿumrah in the talbiyah—“Labbayka Allahumma labbayk”—expressing readiness, devotion, and obedience to Allah’s command.

Lahd (لَـحْـد): Literal meaning: “a side niche or chamber.” Technical meaning (Islamic funerary practice): a type of sepulchre made within the grave, by digging a hollow on the side of the bottom of the grave in which the body is placed; it is regarded in Islamic tradition as the preferred form of burial.

Lan (لَعْن): Literal meaning: “cursing, banishment, or being distanced from mercy.” Technical meaning (Islamic theology and practice): invoking the removal of Allah’s mercy from a person or group due to grave disobedience or enmity toward truth and righteousness. In the Qur’an, lan is frequently mentioned as Allah’s punishment upon disbelievers and hypocrites (e.g., al-Baqarah :88; al-Ahzab :64). In Shia tradition, lan is also recited in specific supplications (e.g., Ziyarat ʿAshura) against the enemies of the Prophet (pbuh&hp) and his family (Ahl al-Bayt). Unlike sabb (insult or verbal abuse), which is prohibited in Islam, lan is a supplication asking Allah to withhold His mercy from oppressors or enemies of truth.

Laylat al-Isra wa-l-Miraj (لَيْلَة الإسراء / المعراج): Literal meaning: “the night of the journey and ascension.” Technical meaning (Islamic belief): the miraculous night journey (isra) of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) from Mecca to Jerusalem, followed by his ascension (miraj) through the heavens by Allah’s power. The Qur’an refers to the isra (al-Isra :1) and to the miraj (al-Najm :13–18). Muslim scholars differ regarding whether this event was bodily and physical, or spiritual and visionary. As for the date, reports agree that it occurred in Mecca before the Hijra and prior to the deaths of Abu Talib and Khadija (thus before the 10th year of the mission), but they differ on the month and night: some traditions say the 17th of Ramadan, others the 17th or 2nd of Rabi al-Awwal, while many emphasize the 27th of Rajab, and still others mention the first Friday of Rajab. This night is commemorated annually with prayers and remembrance.

Laylat al-Qadr (ليلة القدر): Literal meaning: “the night of measure, destiny, or power.” Technical meaning (Islamic belief): a blessed night in the month of Ramadan when the Qurʾan was first revealed to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp). The Qur’an describes it as better than a thousand months (al-Qadr :3), a night of peace until dawn. According to Islamic teachings, destinies for the coming year are decreed on this night. It is observed with prayer, Qurʾan recitation, and vigil. Shia Muslims especially commemorate it on the 19th, 21st, and 23rd nights of Ramadan.

Luqtah (لَقُطَة): Literal meaning: “something picked up or found.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): lost property found by someone. Islamic jurisprudence sets conditions for announcing and safeguarding the luqtah so it may be returned to its rightful owner. If the owner is not found after proper announcement for a specified period, rulings differ: in some cases, the finder may use it while remaining liable, or it may be given as charity on behalf of the owner.

Maghrib (مغرب): Literal meaning: “the place or time of sunset.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): the time for the maghrib prayer begins after sunset, defined by many jurists as the moment when the redness of the eastern sky (after the sun sets) rises and disappears from above one’s head when looking directly upward. In Shia jurisprudence, the beginning of maghrib is after the disappearance of the eastern redness (zawal humrat al-mashriq), whereas most Sunni jurists consider the start of maghrib to be the very moment the disk of the sun disappears below the horizon. Sometimes maghrib refers specifically to the maghrib prayer, which consists of three units (rakʿat) and is one of the five obligatory daily prayers in Islam. In the blessed month of Ramadan, the call to maghrib prayer (adhan al-maghrib) also signals the time for breaking the fast (iftar).

Mahaq (محاق): Literal meaning: “effacement, disappearance.” Technical meaning (Islamic astronomy): the stage of the moon when it becomes invisible at the end of the lunar month, as the crescent disappears in conjunction with the sun. In some sources, mahaq also refers to the very beginning of the new crescent when it is only a few hours old and faintly visible. This phase plays an important role in Islamic timekeeping, particularly in determining the start and end of lunar months such as Ramadan.

Mahram (مَحْرَم): Literal meaning: “someone who is prohibited or restricted.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a person with whom marriage is permanently forbidden due to a close blood relationship, marital bond, or suckling (ridaa). The Qur’an explicitly lists categories of such forbidden relations in al-Nisa:22–23. Furthermore, Surat al-Nur:31 refers to maharim in the context of hijab exemptions. Examples include one’s parents, children, siblings, paternal and maternal uncles and aunts, as well as in-laws such as mother/father-in-law or daughter/son-in-law. Being mahram establishes specific rules of modesty and lawful interaction, such as permission for physical proximity and exemption from the obligation of hijab in private settings.

Makruh (مكروه): Plural: makruhat. Literal meaning: detestable, disliked, or abominable. Technical meaning (Islamic law): a jurisprudential category denoting acts that are religiously discouraged but not forbidden. Although such acts do not incur sin or punishment if performed, abstaining from them brings divine reward. Makruh is one of the five legal rulings (ahkam taklifiyyah al-khamsa) in Islamic jurisprudence, alongside wajib (obligatory), haram (forbidden), mustahabb (recommended), and mubah (permissible).

Mandub (مندوب): Literal meaning: “called upon,” “invited.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): an act that is recommended and encouraged in Sharia, but not obligatory. Performing a mandub deed brings divine reward, while omitting it does not incur sin or punishment. Mandub is one of the five legal rulings (ahkam taklifiyyah al-khamsa) in Islamic jurisprudence, alongside wajib (obligatory), haram (forbidden), makruh (detestable), and mubah (permissible). Synonymous terms are used in different schools of law. Among Shia jurists, mustahabb is the common term, while sunna is more frequently used among Sunni scholars to denote Prophetic practice that is not obligatory. 

Marja (مرجع): Literal meaning: “point of reference, source to which one returns.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a “jurist of emulation” (marja al-taqlid) in Shia Islam, a highly qualified mujtahid whose legal opinions (fatawa) are followed by lay believers in matters of Islamic law. A marja must meet rigorous conditions of scholarship, justice, piety, and probity, and is recognized by the community through reputation and scholarly consensus. In the usul al-din (fundamentals of belief) and in the absolute requiredness of prayer and fasting in the blessed month of Ramadan, or the prohibition of murder, lying, and backbiting—taqlid (emulation) is not permitted, as every Muslim is required to know these with certainty. Even during the lifetime of the Imams (p), people, with the approval and instruction of the Imams themselves, would consult qualified jurists to learn religious rulings and act upon their fatawa. The institution of the marjaiyya (authority of the marja) thus has roots in early Shia history, but it gradually developed into a formal and central institution from the 19th century onward, guiding both personal practice and broader communal and social issues.

Marwah (المروة): Literal meaning: “a small stone or a smooth white rock.” Technical meaning (Islamic history and ritual): a hill in Mecca, facing Safa, which is today enclosed within the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram). Together, Safa and Marwah are integral to the Islamic rite of say (ritual walking) performed during hajj and ʿumrah, in commemoration of Lady Hajar’s (Hagar’s) search for water for her son Ismail. The Qur’an explicitly mentions both hills in connection with this rite (al-Baqara:158), describing them as among the shaair Allah (symbols of God).

Masjid al-Aqsa (المسجد الأقصى): Literally means “the farthest mosque.” It refers to the sacred mosque located in Jerusalem (al-Quds), which holds great spiritual and historical significance in Islam. The Qur’an mentions it in Surat al-Isra: 1 in connection with the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh&hp) Night Journey (al-Isra). Masjid al-Aqsa is the first qiblah of Muslims and the third holiest mosque in Islam after al-Masjid al-Haram and al-Masjid al-Nabi.

Masjid al-Haram (المسجد الحرام): The Grand Mosque in Makkah, the holiest site in Islam, where the Holy Kaba is situated. According to the Qur’an (al-Baqarah: 127), Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael (Ismail) (p) raised the foundations of the Kaba. It is the primary qiblah (direction of prayer) for Muslims worldwide and the central site of the Hajj pilgrimage.

Masjid al-Jami (المسجد الجامع): Literally “the congregational mosque.” It is the main mosque of a town or city where the Friday prayer (salat al-jumuah) and other congregational gatherings are held. The concept of the masjid jami is rooted in the Qur’anic encouragement of communal worship, as reflected in Surat al-Jumuah: 9.

Masjid al-Kufah (مسجد الكوفة): One of the oldest and most significant mosques in Islamic history, located in the city of Kufa, Iraq. It was the center of governance of Imam ʿAli (p) during his caliphate and is among the most revered mosques for Shia Muslims. It holds great historical, religious, and spiritual importance.

Masjid al-Nabi (مسجد النبي / المسجد النبوي): Literally “the Prophet’s Mosque.” It is the mosque built by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) in Medina after his migration (hijra). It is the second holiest mosque in Islam after al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca. The mosque contains the Prophet’s blessed tomb and has been expanded and beautified throughout Islamic history. Although not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, its foundation upon faith and piety is alluded to in Surat al-Tawbah: 108, which praises a mosque “founded on piety from the first day.”

Masjid al-Shajarah (مسجد الشجرة): A mosque located just outside Madinah, also known as Masjid Dhu’l-Hulayfah. It serves as one of the designated Miqat points, where pilgrims (hujjaj) intending to perform Hajj or ʿUmrah put on the ihram. It is the principal miqat for those coming from Madinah

Masjid Dhu al-Qiblatayn (مسجد ذو القبلتين): Literally “the mosque of the two qiblahs.” Located in Medina, it marks the place where the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) received the divine command to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca. This event is referenced in Surat al-Baqarah: 144.

Masjid Ḍirar (مسجد ضرار): Built in Medina by hypocrites during the Prophet’s lifetime under the pretext of piety but in reality to cause harm and division among Muslims. The Qur’an explicitly condemns it in Surat al-Tawbah: 107–110, describing it as a “mosque founded on harm and disbelief.” The Prophet ordered it to be destroyed.

Masjid Quba (مسجد قُباء): The first mosque built by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) upon his arrival in Medina. It is praised in the Qur’an (al-Tawbah: 108) as a mosque “founded on piety (taqwa) from the first day.” Performing prayer there is highly recommended, and the Prophet said that praying in Quba is equivalent to performing an ʿumrah.

Masjid مسجد): Literal meaning: “place of prostration (sujud).” Technical meaning (Islamic practice): a mosque, the dedicated place of Islamic worship where Muslims perform the five daily prayers in congregation. The Qur’an frequently mentions masajid (plural of masjid), emphasizing their sanctity and the command that they be established for the worship of Allah alone (al-Jinn: 18). Certain mosques, such as al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, and al-Masjid al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, hold special religious and historical significance. In Islamic jurisprudence, offering prayer in the mosque, especially in congregation, is regarded as more meritorious than praying individually at home, and great emphasis is placed on attending mosques regularly. Another meaning of masajid in Islamic texts refers to the seven parts of the body that must touch the ground during prostration: the forehead, the two palms, the two knees, and the two big toes. From a jurisprudential perspective, the mosque and any land formally consecrated as a mosque (sighat al-masjidiyya) acquire special rulings: it is forbidden (haram) to defile them with impurity, and if they become impure, it is a collective obligation (wajib kifai) upon the community to purify them.

Mayyit (ميّت): Literally means “dead.” In Islamic usage, it refers to the corpse or dead body of a human being. Islamic law prescribes specific rites for the mayyit, including washing (ghusl al-mayyit), shrouding (takfin), funeral prayer (salat al-janazah), and burial.

Mecca/Makkah (مكّة): A holy city in the region of Hijaz—today part of Saudi Arabia—regarded as the birthplace of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the site of the Kaba within Masjid al-Haram. It is the holiest city in Islam and the focal point of the Hajj pilgrimage.

Mina (مِنى): Literally means “hope” or “desire.” In Islamic usage, it refers to a valley located about 12 km from Makkah, which serves as one of the central sites of the Hajj rituals. In Mina, pilgrims perform the rite of stoning the pillars symbolizing Satan (ramy al-jamarat) and also spend the nights of Tashriq (11th, 12th, and 13th of Dhu’l-Hijjah) as part of their pilgrimage rites.

Miqat (ميقات): Literally means “appointed time” or “fixed point.” In Islamic law, it refers to the specific places designated for pilgrims to put on ihram before entering Makkah for Hajj or ʿUmrah. Each route toward Makkah has its own miqat, such as Dhu’l-Hulayfah (for those coming from Madinah), Yalamlam, Juhfah, Qarn al-Manazil, and Dhat ʿIrq.

Miraj (معراج): Literally means “ascension” or “a means of rising.” According to the Qur’an, it refers to the miraculous ascension of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) through the heavens following the Isra (night journey) from Mecca to Jerusalem. The event is alluded to in the opening verse of Surat al-Isra (17:1) and in Surat al-Najm (53:1–18). During the Miraj, the Prophet witnessed the signs of Allah, encountered earlier prophets, and received the command for the five daily prayers.

Miskin (مسكين): Literally “poor” or “destitute.” In Islamic usage, it refers to a needy person who cannot secure basic daily food or expenses. The miskin is eligible for zakat, as mentioned in the Qur’an (al-Tawbah: 60). Classical scholars often distinguish between faqir and miskin: the faqir is one with little or no means, while the miskin is in even greater deprivation, lacking what is necessary for daily survival.

Mithqal (مثقال): Literal meaning: “a unit of weight,” originally meaning “that which balances the scale.” Technical meaning: a traditional measure widely used in Islamic law, especially in rulings on zakat, khums, dowry (mahr), inheritance, diyah (blood money), and transactions involving gold and silver. Its exact value varied historically, but the commonly cited mithqal al-sayrafi equals about 4.64 grams (0.16 ounces). Understanding its measure is important for correctly applying many legal obligations and rights.

Mizar (مئزر): Literal meaning: “a waist-wrapper or loincloth.” Technical meaning (Islamic law and practice): in the context of kafan (shrouding the deceased), it refers to the lower garment used to cover the body from the navel to the knees. It is one of the three essential pieces of the burial shroud in Islamic jurisprudence, along with the Qamis (shirt) and Lifafah (outer wrapping).

Muayyan (مُعيَّن): Literal meaning: “specified, designated, determined.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): refers to an act of worship, duty, or intention that is tied to a specific time, place, or condition. For example, intending to fast on a particular day, such as Thursday, or offering a prayer at its appointed time. By contrast, Ghayr Muayyan (غير مُعيَّن) means unspecified or non-designated, such as making a general intention to fast without fixing it to a particular day. The distinction is significant in jurisprudence, since obligations and intentions may vary depending on whether they are muayyan (specified) or ghayr muayyan (unspecified). 

Mudaf (مُضاف): Literal meaning: “added or mixed.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): used particularly in the laws of purity (taharah) to describe water that is mixed with another substance (such as juice, milk, or rosewater) so that it is no longer regarded as plain water. In contrast, Mutlaq water is pure, unmixed water that retains its natural properties and can be used for ritual purification like wudu or ghusl.

Mudd (مُدّ): Literal meaning: “a measure, portion, or handful.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a traditional unit of volume/weight used in Islamic jurisprudence, especially in rulings of zakat, kaffarah, and fidyah. It is approximately 0.75 liters in volume or about 1.65 pounds (0.75 kg) of wheat or similar grains.

Mudhakkah (مُذكّى): Literal meaning: “purified or rendered lawful.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): an animal that has been slaughtered, killed, or properly hunted in accordance with Islamic law, making its meat permissible (halal) for consumption. The process of tadhkiyah (تذكية) includes conditions such as invoking the name of Allah, using the prescribed method of slaughter, and ensuring the animal is alive at the time of slaughter. The concept is referenced in the Qur’an (al-Maidah: 3).

Mufattirat (مفطرّات): Literal meaning: “things that cause breaking.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): acts or substances that nullify the validity of a fast, such as eating, drinking, sexual intercourse, deliberate vomiting, or allowing thick dust/smoke to enter the throat. The exact list and details vary slightly across schools of Islamic jurisprudence.

Muhallal (مُحلَّل): Literal meaning: “made permissible, rendered lawful.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): an animal that becomes lawful (halal) to eat after undergoing proper tadhkiyah (ritual slaughter or lawful hunting) according to Islamic law. In contrast, an animal not subjected to valid tadhkiyah remains forbidden (haram) for consumption. The concept is referenced in the Qur’an (al-Maidah: 3).

Muhallil (مُحلِّل): Literal meaning: “one who makes permissible.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): In the context of marriage and divorce, it refers to the man who marries a woman after she has been divorced three times by her previous husband. According to Islamic law, after a triple divorce (talaq thalath), the woman may not remarry her former husband unless she Islamically marries another man (muhallil), the marriage is consummated, and then it ends through divorce or the husband’s death. Only then does she become lawful (halal) again for her former husband. The Qur’an refers to this rule in al-Baqarah: 230.

Muharram (مُحرَّم): The first month of the Islamic lunar calendar and one of the four ashhur hurum (sacred months) mentioned in the Qur’an (al-Tawbah: 36), during which fighting and warfare were traditionally prohibited. These four sacred months are Muharram, Dhu al-Qadah, Dhu al-Hijja, and Rajab. Muharram holds special significance in Islamic history as the month of the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (p) and the tragedy of Karbala, which occurred on the tenth day (ʿAshura).

Muhkam (مُحكَم): Literally means “firm,” or “decisive.” In Qur’anic terminology, it refers to the verses whose meanings are clear and unambiguous, leaving no room for multiple interpretations. The Qur’an itself describes certain verses as muhkamat, calling them “the foundation of the Book” (al-ʿImran: 7). Such verses establish the fundamental principles of faith, law, and morality, and are considered the primary references for understanding the Qur’an.

Mujizah (مُعجزة): Literally means: “that which renders others powerless or incapable,” and technically means a supernatural act performed by a prophet or divinely appointed leader, by the will and permission of Allah, to prove the truth of their claim and to establish divine authority. A mujizah cannot be imitated or countered by others and serves as a sign (ayah) of divine support. The Qur’an itself is regarded as the everlasting mujizah of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), being inimitable in its eloquence, depth of meaning, and transformative power.

Mujnib (مُجنِب): Literal meaning: “one who is in a state of separation or distance.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a person in the state of janabah (major ritual impurity) caused by sexual intercourse or seminal discharge. A mujnib must perform ghusl al-janabah before engaging in acts of worship such as salah (prayer), tawaf (circumambulation of the Kabah), touching the written text of the Qur’an, or entering a mosque. This ruling is referenced in the Qur’an (al-Nisa: 43; al-Maidah: 6).

Mujtahid (مُجتهِد): Literal meaning: “one who strives and exerts great effort.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a jurist who has attained the level of ijtihad and possesses the ability to independently derive Islamic rulings from the primary sources (the Qur’an, hadith, consensus, and reason). There are two types of mujtahids: the Mujtahid Mutlaq (absolute jurist), who can derive rulings in all areas of jurisprudence, and the Mujtahid Mutajazzi (partial jurist), whose ijtihad is limited to specific fields. A mujtahid who, due to superior knowledge, piety, and social standing, is recognized by the Shia community as a source to be followed in matters of law is called a Marja al-Taqlid (Source of Emulation). Thus, every marja al-taqlid is a mujtahid, but not every mujtahid is necessarily a marja al-taqlid.

Mukallaf (مُكلَّف): Literal meaning: “one who is charged or burdened with responsibility.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a person who has reached the age of religious obligation (bulugh), is of sound mind (i.e., has the capacity to understand religious obligations), thereby becoming Islamically accountable for performing Islamic duties such as salah, sawm, zakah, and hajj. The conditions of taklif (legal responsibility) generally include Islam, sanity, and puberty.

Mukhayyara (مُخيّرة): Literal meaning: “given a choice, optioned.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a form of kaffarah (expiation) in which the person has the option to choose between different prescribed acts to fulfill the obligation. For example, if a person intentionally breaks a fast of the month of Ramadan without a valid reason, then they must either fulfill the expiation by fasting for two consecutive months or feed sixty poor people.

Mumayyiz (مُميّز): Literal meaning: “discerning, one who can distinguish.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a child who has not yet reached the age of religious obligation (baligh) but has attained the level of understanding (usually around the age of seven) to distinguish between right and wrong, and between halal and haram. Some of their actions and duties are legally valid in Sharia, such as following a jurist in taqlid, entering into certain undertakings, or engaging in limited transactions like buying and selling. The Qur’an also refers to such children in the context of privacy rules, instructing that they must seek permission at certain times before entering private quarters (al-Nur: 58).

Mumin (مؤمن): Literal meaning: “a believer, one who has faith and trust.” In Qur’anic usage, the term denotes genuine inward faith; the Qur’an distinguishes between outward submission (islam) and true faith (iman) (see al-Hujurat 49:14), indicating that being a mumin is a higher rank than merely being Muslim. Technical meaning (Shia theology): a Muslim who, in addition to professing Islam, believes in the Twelve Imams as the rightful successors of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp).

Muqallid (مُقلِّد): Literal meaning: “one who imitates or follows.” Technical meaning (Islamic law): a Muslim who follows the rulings of a qualified jurist (mujtahid or marja al-taqlid) in matters of Islamic practice. Since not every believer has the ability to derive rulings directly from the Qur’an and hadith, the muqallid relies on the guidance of the jurist whose knowledge, piety, and authority are recognized.

Muqassir (مُقصّر): Literal meaning: one who falls short or is negligent. Technical meaning (Islamic law): a person who neglects to make the necessary effort to learn or understand religious laws, despite having the means and opportunity to do so. Unlike the qasir (truly incapable person, excused due to lack of access or knowledge), the muqassir is blameworthy because their ignorance results from negligence or willful disregard.

Muqim (مقيم): Literally “one who resides.” In Islamic law, a muqim is someone settled in a place, in contrast to a traveler (musafir). A traveler who enters a town or location with the intention of staying for ten days or more is also deemed a muqim in rulings. Certain obligations differ between the muqim and the musafir: a muqim performs full prayers, whereas a traveler shortens them (Qur’an 4:101); a muqim must fast in Ramadan, while a traveler is exempt but must make up the missed days later (Qur’an 2:185). In hajj, too, there are differences: a resident of Makkah does not perform Hajj al-Tamattu but instead Hajj al-Ifrad or al-Qiran (Qur’an 2:196).

Murattaba (مرتّبة): Literally means “ordered” or “arranged.” In Islamic law, it refers to a type of expiation (kaffara) that must be fulfilled in a prescribed order—if the first option is not possible, then the second, and so on; for example, the expiation for accidentally killing someone is fasting for two consecutive months and if they are truly unable to do so then they must feed sixty needy people.

Musa (موسى): A Prophet of Allah mentioned in both the Qur’an and the Old Testament, he was born in Egypt at a time when Pharaoh oppressed the Children of Israel. He lived several thousand years ago, commonly dated to around the 13th–15th century BCE. Alongside Nuh (Noah), Ibrahim (Abraham), ʿIsa (Jesus), and Muhammad (pbuh&hp), he is one of the ulu al-ʿazm (arch-messengers) who possessed steadfastness and a universal mission. The name Musa is the most frequently mentioned among prophets in the Qur’an, appearing approximately 136 times across various surahs.

Musafir (مسافر): Literally “traveler.” In Islamic law, a musafir is a person who sets out on a journey of at least the prescribed distance (approximately 8 farsakhs, about 44 km) and does not intend to stay in the destination for ten days or more. Such a person is subject to specific rulings: the musafir shortens four-unit prayers to two (Qur’an 4:101) and is exempt from fasting in Ramadan, though they must make up the missed days later (Qur’an 2:185). In hajj, rulings also differ between the musafir and the muqim.

Muslim (مسلم): Literal meaning: “one who submits.” Technical meaning: A Muslim is one who believes in Allah and submits to Him, who believes in Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and in the Day of Resurrection (Qiyamah); who recites the shahadatayn—bearing witness to the oneness of Allah and the prophethood of Muhammad (pbuh&hp); and who accepts the commandments of Allah and His Prophet (pbuh&hp) as the ultimate Truth. A child born to a Muslim father or mother is also considered a Muslim.

Mustahabb (مستحب): Literal meaning “liked” or “preferred.” In Islamic jurisprudence, mustahabb refers to an act that is recommended and meritorious under Islamic law. Performing it brings reward, but leaving it does not incur sin. It is better to perform recommended actions than to neglect them, but they are not compulsory. Mustahabb is one of the five rulings (al-ahkam al-khamsa al-taklifiyya) alongside wajib (obligatory), haram (forbidden), makruh (discouraged), and mubah (permissible).

Mutanajjis (متنجِّس): Literal meaning: “rendered impure.” Technical meaning: In Islamic jurisprudence, mutanajjis refers to an item or substance that is not inherently impure (najis) but becomes temporarily impure through contact with an ʿayn najis (essential impurity, such as blood, urine, or wine) or with another mutanajjis under conditions that transmit impurity. Unlike ʿayn najis, which is intrinsically impure, a mutanajjis is impure only by secondary cause and can be purified through the prescribed means (e.g., washing).

Mutashabih (متشابه): Literally means “similar” or “ambiguous.” In the Qur’an, it refers to verses whose meanings are not immediately clear, as their interpretation may depend on context, deeper reflection, or divine knowledge. The Qur’an contrasts mutashabihat with muhkamat (al-ʿImran: 7), indicating that while muhkam verses form the clear foundation of guidance, mutashabih verses invite contemplation and humility before God. Scholars have long debated the extent of mutashabih verses, but they are generally seen as a test of sincerity and intellectual discipline in understanding divine revelation.

Muzdalafah (مزدلفة) / Mash‘ar (مشعر): Literal meaning: “the place of drawing near” or “closeness.” Muzdalafah is an open, level valley situated between ʿArafat and Mina, southeast of Mecca, at a distance of about 20 km (12 miles). It forms part of the sacred geography of the Hajj pilgrimage. Pilgrims stay there overnight on the 9th of Dhu al-Hijja, and collect pebbles to be used later in the ritual of ramy al-jamarat. Also known as al-Mash‘ar al-Haram, the place is sanctified in Islamic tradition (Qur’an 2:198).

Nadhr (نذْر): A vow or solemn promise made to Allah. In Shia jurisprudence, nadhr is a verbal commitment to perform a good or recommended act if a certain wish is fulfilled. It becomes binding only when pronounced with the phrase “Nadhrun lillahi ʿalayy that I do such-and-such if Allah does such-and-such for me” and must relate to an act that is permissible and leads to obedience to Allah. The Qur’an praises those who fulfill their vows, as mentioned in Al-Hajj: 29 and Al-Insan: 7.

Nafilah (نافلة): A recommended (non-obligatory) act of worship performed to seek closeness to Allah. It includes extra prayers beyond the obligatory (faridah) ones. Among the most virtuous examples is Nafilat al-Layl (the night prayer), performed after midnight and before the dawn (subh) prayer, consisting—according to Shia teachings—of eleven rakʿahs. The Qur’an refers to it in al-Isra: 79 as “the night prayer, an additional duty for you.”

Nahi ʿan al-Munkar (نهي عن المنكر): Forbidding or discouraging evil, wrongdoing, or sinful acts. It is one of the two great social obligations (al-amr bil-maruf wa al-nahy ʿan al-munkar), a branch of Islam, and a fundamental duty upon every believer, according to their ability. It requires wisdom, proper intention, and consideration of effectiveness and safety. The Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes this duty, including in Al ʿImran: 104 and 9:71, highlighting it as a sign of a righteous ummah.

Najis (نجس): “Ritually impure”; something that is religiously unclean and cannot be purified except through specific means prescribed by Islamic law. In Shia jurisprudence, najasah refers to substances inherently impure (ʿayn najisah), such as urine, blood, wine, dogs, and pigs, or things made impure through contact with them (mutanajjis). Purity (taharah) is a prerequisite for acts of worship like prayer and tawaf.

Nifas (نفاس): “Post-natal bleeding”; the blood discharged from a woman’s womb after childbirth. In Shia jurisprudence, nifas shares many rulings with hayd (menstruation) concerning ritual impurity and the prohibition of certain acts such as prayer, fasting, and entering mosques. Its maximum duration is ten days, and if bleeding continues beyond that, the excess is treated as istihada (non-menstrual bleeding).

Nikah (نكاح): A pronouncement of marriage according to the Shariah. In Shia jurisprudence, nikah is a sacred and lawful contract (ʿaqd sharʿi) between a man and a woman that makes their marital relationship permissible. It requires the consent of both parties, the recitation of a specific formula (sighah). Marriage may be permanent (nikah daim) or temporary (nikah mutah), both recognized as valid forms in Shia law.

Niyyah (نيّة): “Intention” or “purpose”; the resolve of the heart to perform an act. It is the conscious determination to carry out an act of worship sincerely for the sake of Allah. Niyyah distinguishes devotional acts from ordinary actions and is a prerequisite for the validity of worship, such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage. Verbal expression is not required; what matters is the inner awareness and sincerity (ikhlas) of intention (of seeking nearness to Allah). Also, Niyyah irtikaziyyah (نِيَّةٌ ارْتِكَازِيَّة): The formulation of intention within one’s consciousness; it refers to an unspoken, implicit intention that exists firmly in the mind without verbal expression. As long as a person is aware of what they are doing and performing it for the sake of Allah, the niyyah irtikaziyyah is valid and sufficient for acts of worship.

Nuh (نُوح): A Prophet of Allah mentioned in both the Qur’an and the Old Testament, he is regarded as one of the earliest messengers sent to humanity after Adam. He lived several thousand years ago, with traditional dating placing him in the ancient Near East, though exact historical dates remain uncertain. Nuh is one of the ulu al-ʿazm (arch-messengers), along with Ibrahim (Abraham), Musa (Moses), ʿIsa (Jesus), and Muhammad (pbuh&hp). His mission emphasized faith in the One God, moral reform, and resistance against idolatry and corruption. The Qur’an narrates the story of his long struggle with his people and the great flood, with his name appearing in the Qur’an 50 times across different surahs.

Qada (قضاء): Fulfillment of a missed religious duty after its prescribed time. It applies mainly to obligatory acts such as prayer and fasting. The Qur’an refers to this in the verse on fasting: “Then (make up by fasting) some other days” (faiddatun min ayyamin ukhar, al-Baqarah: 184). Although qada technically applies only to obligatory duties, certain recommended acts, such as the night prayer, may be performed later with the intention of hope for reward (niyyat al-raja), not as a binding qada in the juristic sense.

Qadhf (قذْف): Falsely accusing a chaste person of adultery or fornication. In Islamic law, it refers specifically to the false allegation of zina (illicit sexual relations) without producing four reliable witnesses. Qadhf is considered a grave sin and a punishable crime; the Qur’an (Al-Nur: 4) prescribes eighty lashes for those who accuse without proof.

Qadr (قَدْر): “Power,” “value,” or “decree.” The term is most famously associated with Laylat al-Qadr—the Night of Power or Decree—mentioned in the Qur’an (Surat al-Qadr: 1), when the Holy Qur’an was first revealed and divine decrees for the year were set. It is a night of immense spiritual worth, greater than a thousand months (khayrun min alfi shahr), and is marked by worship, prayer, and seeking forgiveness.

Qalil (قليل): Literally means “little” or “limited in amount.” In jurisprudential terminology, it refers to a quantity of water that is less than kurr—the minimum volume that resists impurity. Ma qalil (non-flowing water less than kurr) becomes najis (ritually impure) upon contact with impurity. This distinction is significant in the laws of purification (taharah).

Qasir (قاصر): In Islamic terms, a qasir is someone who is ignorant in terms of knowing or understanding Islamic laws but is excused or not culpable for their ignorance. 

Qasr (قصر): Literally means “shortening” or “reducing.” In jurisprudential usage, it refers to shortening the prescribed prayers while traveling—performing four-rakʿah prayers (dhuhr, ʿasr, and ʿisha) as two rakʿahs. This concession applies when specific conditions are met, such as traveling a minimum required distance, the journey being lawful, and not intending to stay ten days or more at the destination. It is a divine mercy and facilitation mentioned in Surah Al-Nisa: 101.

Qayyim (قيِّم): “Guardian”; the person appointed by the testator to manage the affairs of minor children after the testator’s death. The qayyim is responsible until the children reach bulugh (adulthood) and are deemed capable of managing their own affairs, at which point their property and trusts are returned to them.

Qiblah (قِبلة): Literally means “direction” or “orientation.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to the direction faced during prayer—the direction of the Holy Kabah in Mecca. Facing the qiblah is a condition for the validity of salah (prayer) and a symbol of unity among Muslims worldwide. The change of qiblah from Jerusalem to Mecca, as mentioned in Al-Baqarah: 144, signifies the establishment of a distinct religious identity for the ummah.

Qisas (قِصاص): Literally means “equal retaliation” or “requital.” In Islamic law, it refers to the principle of retribution in cases of homicide or bodily harm, granting the victim—or the victim’s family if deceased—the right to seek an equal and proportional punishment. Qisas upholds justice by ensuring that the punishment matches the offense, yet it also encourages forgiveness and reconciliation, as emphasized in Al-Baqarah: 178.

Qiyam (قيام): Literally means “standing” or “rising.” The term occurs in the Qur’an in various contexts, often symbolizing firmness in worship and faith, such as in Al ʿImran: 39 and Al-Zumar: 9, where standing in prayer at night is praised as a mark of devotion. In the context of salah (prayer), qiyam refers to standing upright during the recitation of Surat al-Fatihah and another surah, as well as the brief standing after ruku (bowing). It is one of the essential pillars (arkan) of prayer and must be performed with calmness and humility (tumaninah), unless one is unable to stand due to illness or disability.

Qiyamah (قيامة): Literally means “rising” or “standing up.” In Islamic belief, it refers to the Day of Resurrection, when all human beings will rise from their graves for judgment by Allah. It is also called Yawm al-Qiyamah—the Day of Standing—when deeds will be weighed and justice will prevail. Belief in Qiyamah is one of the core articles of Islamic faith. The Holy Qur’an devotes an entire chapter to this event, Surat al-Qiyamah (75), which vividly describes the resurrection, accountability, and the fate of souls in the hereafter.

Qudsi (قُدسي): Literally means “holy” or “sacred.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to the words of Allah revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) that are not part of the Qur’an. Such sayings are known as ahadith qudsiyyah (sacred traditions). Their wording is from the Prophet, but their meaning is from Allah. They convey divine messages concerning faith, ethics, and spirituality, distinct from the Qur’an, which is both revealed in wording and meaning.

Qunut (قُنوت): Literally means “devotion,” “obedience,” or “humble submission” to Allah. The term appears in the Qur’an in several forms, such as al-qanitin (the devoutly obedient), describing those who show humility and steadfast worship before Allah (e.g., Al-Baqarah: 116; Al ʿImran: 17; Al-Ahzab: 35). In the context of prayer (salah), it refers to raising one’s hands in supplication before the face, with palms upward and close together, while reciting a dua, usually before ruku in the second rakʿah. Performing qunut is a recommended (mustahabb) act, not an obligatory element or pillar (rukn) of the prayer.

Qurbah (قُربة): Literally means “nearness” or “closeness.” The Qur’an uses the term to express spiritual nearness to Allah, as in Surat al-ʿAlaq: 19. In religious usage, qurbah refers to performing an act sincerely for the sake of Allah and seeking His pleasure. This spiritual intention—known as qasd al-qurbah—is a condition for the validity of all acts of worship, distinguishing them from ordinary deeds.

Rabi’ al-Akhir (رَبيعُ الآخِر): The fourth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. It follows Rabi al-Awwal and precedes Jumada al-Ula.

Rabi’ al-Awwal (رَبيعُ الأَوَّل):The third month of the Islamic lunar calendar. It holds special significance in Islamic history as the month in which the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) was born and, according to most accounts, also passed away. Many Muslims commemorate the Prophet’s birth (Mawlid al-Nabi) during this month through gatherings of remembrance, prayer, and charitable acts.

Radd madhalim (ردّ مظالِم): Literally means “the restitution of wrongs” or “the repayment of grievances.” In Islamic ethics and jurisprudence, it refers to the act of restoring the rights of others and clearing oneself of outstanding dues, injustices, or transgressions committed against people. Radd al-mazalim requires that a believer compensate, apologize to, or seek forgiveness from anyone who has been wronged—whether through financial misconduct, misuse of public or private funds, insult, betrayal, backbiting, deceit, or neglect of moral obligations such as offering sincere advice and support. It is considered an essential step in repentance (tawbah) and spiritual purification before death.

Raja al-Matlubiyyah (رجاء المطلوبية): Literally means “hope of desirability.” In Islamic jurisprudence, it refers to performing an act of worship with the intention of hope—that is, when a jurist cannot confirm with certainty that the act is explicitly legislated or required (wajib or mustahabb), but the believer performs it out of hope that it is pleasing and acceptable to Allah. This intention allows the act to be performed without claiming certainty that it is a religious duty, and it is legislated as such by God (wajib); “hope that it is required by Allah.”

Rajab (رجب): Literally means “to respect” or “to honor.” It is the seventh month of the Islamic lunar calendar and one of the four sacred months (al-ashhur al-hurum) mentioned in the Qur’an (al-Tawbah: 36), where God refers to “sacred months” without naming them. Rajab holds special spiritual significance; many Muslims devote it to extra worship, fasting, and repentance. According to Shia tradition, it marks the birth of Imam ʿAli (p) on the 13th of the month and the Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh&hp) mission (bithah) on the 27th.

Ramadan (رمضان): Literally derived from a root meaning “to burn” or “to be intensely hot,” symbolizing the burning away of sins. It is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar and the only month explicitly mentioned by name in the Qur’an (al-Baqarah: 185). The fasting (sawm) of Ramadan is one of the pillars of Islam. It is the month in which the Holy Qur’an was revealed as “guidance for humankind.” Muslims in this month draw closer to Allah through fasting and reciting the Qur’an—commonly completing one full reading during the month. The last ten nights are especially blessed, including Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power), described as “better than a thousand months.”

Riya (رياء): Literally means “to show” or “to make seen.” In Islamic ethics, it refers to performing acts of worship or goodness for the sake of being seen or praised by others, rather than sincerely for Allah. Riya invalidates the spiritual value of deeds and is considered a form of hidden shirk (associating partners with God), as it replaces divine intention with desire for human approval. The Qur’an warns against such hypocrisy in Surat al-Maun: 4–6.

Rukn (رُكن): Literally means “pillar” or “essential support.” In Islamic jurisprudence, especially in the law of prayer, it refers to a fundamental component of salah without which the prayer is invalid. According to Shia fiqh, the pillars of prayer are: niyyah (intention), takbirat al-ihram (opening “Allahu Akbar”), qiyam (standing), ruku (bowing), and sajdatayn (two prostrations in each rakʿah). Omitting any of these—intentionally or unintentionally—invalidates the prayer. In contrast, omitting other wajib acts intentionally also invalidates the prayer, but if done unintentionally, it can often be compensated by sajdat al-sahw (prostration of forgetfulness). Examples of non-pillar obligations include reciting Surat al-Fatihah and another surah, and the dhikr (glorification) in ruku and sujud.

Ruku (رُكُوع): Literally means “bowing” or “bending down.” In Islamic worship, it refers to the act of bowing during prayer (salah) after the recitation, with hands placed on the knees, expressing humility and submission before Allah. The Qur’an frequently mentions ruku as a symbol of devotion, such as in Surat al-Hajj: 77 — “O you who believe! Bow down and prostrate yourselves and worship your Lord.” It is one of the pillars (arkan) of prayer, and omitting it invalidates the salah.

Sa (صاع): Literally means “measure” or “capacity.” It is a traditional Islamic unit of volume, used particularly in zakat al-fitrah and other charitable or legal contexts. Its exact modern equivalent varies slightly by tradition, but it is approximately 3 kilograms (about 6.6 pounds) of staple food such as wheat, rice, or dates. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) prescribed the sa as the standard measure for zakat al-fitrah.

Sadaqah (صدقة): Literally means “truthfulness,” and in Islamic usage refers to voluntary charity given to those in need for the sake of Allah. Unlike zakat, which is obligatory, sadaqah is optional and can take many forms—such as financial help, kind words, or any act of goodness done sincerely. The Qur’an encourages giving sadaqah as a means of purification and mercy (al-Baqarah: 272–273) and warns against harming or humiliating the recipient, stating that those who follow up their charity with reproach or injury will have their deeds nullified (al-Baqarah: 264). Also, Sadaqah Jariyah (صدقة جارية): Literally meaning: “continuing charity.” In Islamic teaching, it refers to an ongoing charitable act that continues to benefit others and bring reward (thawab) to the giver even after death. It is a recommended (mustahabb) form of sadaqah that creates lasting impact—for example, building a school or hospital, providing access to clean water, or donating religious books and knowledge to a mosque or educational center.

Safar (صَفَر): The second month of the Islamic lunar calendar. It includes Arbaeen, observed on the 20th of Safar, which marks one of the largest annual peaceful gatherings and pilgrimages in the world, as millions of people walk to Karbala in remembrance of Imam Husayn (p).

Sajdah (سجدة): Literally means “prostration.” The Qur’an presents it as a sign of faith and nearness to God (al-ʿAlaq: 19), mentions the prostration of all creation (al-Hajj: 18), forbids prostration to the sun and the moon while commanding it to their Creator (Fussilat: 37), and regards prostration upon hearing divine verses as a mark of true believers (al-Sajdah: 15). It also recounts God’s command to the angels to prostrate before Adam. In Islamic worship, sajdah is the act of prostration in prayer, performed by placing seven parts of the body on the ground: the forehead (on something natural that is not eaten or worn), both palms, both knees, and the two big toes. It signifies humility, gratitude, and servitude before God. It is on two types: Sajdah wajibah (سجدة واجبة): The Qur’anic verses that require a person to perform a prostration (sajdah) upon their recitation or hearing. According to Shia jurisprudence, there are four such verses in the Qur’an: Surat al-Sajdah (32:15), Surat Fussilat (41:37), Surat al-Najm (53:62) and Surat al-ʿAlaq (96:19). When any of these verses are recited or heard, a single sajdah becomes obligatory. And, Sajdah mustahabbah (سجدة مستحبّة): a recommended prostration right after completing each daily prayers or upon remembering any blessing received by Almighty God. 

Salah (صلاة): Literally means “connection” or “supplication.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to the ritual prayer performed to worship and remember Allah. Salah includes both obligatory (faridah) and recommended (nafilah) prayers. It is performed with specific recitations and physical postures such as standing (qiyam), bowing (ruku), and prostration (sujud). The Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes its importance (e.g., al-Baqarah 2:43; al-ʿAnkabut 29:45), describing it as a means of remembrance (dhikr) of Allah and a protection against wrongdoing.

Salam (سلام): Literally means “peace” and “tranquility.” Among Muslims, it is used as a greeting of goodwill and kindness through the phrase as-salamu ʿalaykum (peace be upon you). Al-Salam is also one of Allah’s names (al-Hashr 59:23). The Qur’an commands believers to offer greetings of peace (al-Nisa 4:86) and describes salam as the greeting of the angels to the people of Paradise (Ya Sin 36:58). In prayer, salam marks the conclusion of worship, as the worshipper ends the prayer with the phrase as-salamu ʿalaykum wa rahmatullah.

Salat / Salawat (صلوات): Latterly: “Prayer,” and the plural is Salawat. Also, Salawat refers to invoking peace and blessings upon Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and his pure progeny (Al Muhammad). It is both a devotional act and a sign of reverence commanded by Allah in the Qur’an: “Indeed, Allah and His angels send blessings upon the Prophet. O you who believe, send blessings upon him and salute him with peace” (al-Ahzab 33:56). The most complete form of salawat is: “Allahumma salli ʿala Muhammadin wa ali Muhammad.” According to Shia jurists, reciting salawat in the tashahhud of the daily prayer is obligatory (wajib). It is also strongly recommended whenever the Prophet’s name is mentioned or heard, as a sign of love, reverence, and connection to him and his family.

Salat al-Ayat (صلاة الآيات): Literally means “the prayer of the signs.” It is an obligatory prayer performed upon certain natural phenomena such as solar and lunar eclipses (even partial), earthquakes, and—according to obligatory precaution—any frightening natural event that terrifies most people. It becomes obligatory on every accountable person (mukallaf), except women during menstruation (hayd) or postnatal bleeding (nifas). The prayer consists of two rakʿahs, each containing five rukus. For detailed instructions on how to perform it, one may refer to the risalah ʿamaliyyah (manual of religious rulings) of one’s marja.

Salat al-Khawf (صَلاةُ الخَوف): The prayer of fear. A special form of salah performed in times of danger, such as during battle or severe threat, when normal prayer arrangements are not possible. It is established in the Qur’an (al-Nisa 4:102) and allows flexibility in timing, posture, and sequence to ensure the remembrance of Allah even in peril. Its detailed method varies according to circumstances and is explained in the Risalah ʿAmaliyyah (practical law manual) of one’s marja al-taqlid (religious authority).

Salat al-Layl (صلاة الليل): Literally means “the night prayer.” It is a highly recommended (mustahabb) prayer performed after isha and before the dawn (subh) prayer. According to Shia teachings, it consists of eleven rakʿahs: eight performed in sets of two, followed by two rakʿahs of salat al-shafʿ and one rakʿah of salat al-witr. It is praised in many hadiths for its spiritual value and referred to in the Qur’an (al-Isra 17:79) as a means of attaining closeness and honor before Allah.

Salat al-Mayyit (صَلاةُ المَيّت): The funeral prayer for a deceased Muslim (even for a minor or a person with mental disability, according to the majority of Shia jurists). It is an obligatory collective duty (fard kifayah) performed standing, without ruku or sujud. The prayer includes five takbirs and supplications seeking Allah’s mercy and forgiveness for the deceased.

Salat al-Musafir (صَلاةُ المُسافِر): The traveler’s prayer. An obligatory shortening (qasr) of the four-rakʿah prayers (zuhr, ʿasr, and ʿisha) to two rakʿahs when one travels the minimum distance defined by Islamic law (approximately 44 km or 8 farsakhs). Certain conditions apply, such as the intention to travel the full distance and staying fewer than ten days at the destination. This ruling is based on Qur’anic guidance (al-Nisa 4:101).

Salat al-Wahshah or Salat Laylat al-Dafn (صلاة الوحشة / صلاة ليلة الدّفن): A recommended two-rakʿah prayer performed on the first night after a person’s burial to bring comfort to the deceased. In the first rakʿah, after Surat al-Fatihah, Ayat al-Kursi (al-Baqarah 2:255–257) is recited; in the second rakʿah, after Surat al-Fatihah, Surat al-Qadr (97) is recited ten times. After taslim, one says: “O Allah, send the reward of this prayer to [the name of the deceased].”

Sawm (صَوم): Literally means “to abstain” or “to refrain.” In Islamic terminology, it refers to fasting — the act of abstaining from food, drink, and other invalidators from dawn (fajr) until sunset (maghrib) with the intention of worshipping Allah. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is one of the obligatory acts upon all accountable Muslims (mukallaf), except for those exempted, such as travelers or the sick. The Qur’an commands fasting as a means to attain piety and self-restraint (al-Baqarah 2:183), and states that its obligatory time is the entire blessed month of Ramadan (al-Baqarah 2:185). Also, Sawm al-Qada (صوم القضاء): A make-up fast performed to compensate for missed obligatory fasting days, such as those from the month of Ramadan, due to valid reasons like illness or travel. This ruling is based on al-Baqarah 2:184.

Say (سعي): Literally means “to strive,” “to make effort,” or “to walk briskly.” In the context of hajj and ʿumrah, it refers to walking back and forth seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah, located within the Sacred Mosque in Makkah. This ritual commemorates Lady Hajar’s (Hagar’s) earnest search for water for her son Prophet Ismail (p) and symbolizes human effort, trust in God, and divine mercy. In the Qur’an (al-Baqarah: 158), this act is specifically mentioned as one of the symbols of Allah.

Sayyid (سيّد) (also spelled Seyyed, Sayed, or Syed), plural Sadat (سادات) or Sadah (سادة): Literally means “master” or “Mr.” or “noble.” The term refers to a descendant of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) through his daughter Fatimah (p) and Imam ʿAli (p). According to Shia tradition, the Sadat hold a special status within the Muslim community, reflecting respect, honor, and loyalty to the Prophet.

Shaban (شعبان): Literally means: “to disperse or to branch out.” The eighth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, marked by the birth anniversary of Imam al-Mahdi (may Allah hasten his reappearance) on its fifteenth night.

Shaf (شَفْع): Literally means: “even” (as opposed to odd). A two-unit recommended prayer performed in the middle of the night as part of Salat al-Layl (the Night Prayer), followed by the single-unit Witr prayer.

Shafa‘a (شَفَاعَة): Literally means: “intercession” or “mediation.” In Islamic theology, it refers to seeking forgiveness or mercy from God on behalf of another. The Qur’an emphasizes that intercession belongs ultimately to God and that no one may intercede except by His permission: “Who is it that can intercede with Him except by His permission?” (al-Baqarah: 255) and “No intercessor can plead except after His leave.” (Yunus: 3). In Shia belief, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the Imams (p) are the foremost divinely permitted intercessors through whom God’s mercy reaches the faithful on the Day of Judgment.

Shahadah (شَهَادَة): Literally means: “testimony” or “declaration.” In Islam, it primarily refers to the declaration of faith: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” This statement, known as the kalimat al-shahadah, marks a believer’s entry into the faith, affirming both the oneness of God (tawhid) and the prophethood of Muhammad (pbuh&hp). The term shahadah is also used in a legal context to mean bearing witness or giving testimony before a judge. The Qur’an emphasizes the moral and social duty of truthful testimony, describing concealment of evidence or false witness as a grave sin and urging believers to uphold justice even when it is against themselves or their kin (see al-Baqarah: 283; al-Hajj: 30).

Shaitan (شيطان): Literally means “one who is far (or rebellious).” In Islamic belief, it refers to Satan, the arrogant being who disobeyed God’s command to bow before Adam and thus became the sworn enemy of humankind. The Qur’an describes Shaitan as one who seeks to mislead people from the path of truth through temptation and deceit. It also mentions the existence of “satans from among humans and jinn” (shayatin al-insi wal-jinn) who cooperate in spreading corruption and falsehood (al-An‘am: 112). Thus, Shaitan refers not only to the individual Iblis but also to any rebellious force—human or jinn—that opposes divine guidance. The Qur’an repeatedly warns believers to regard Shaitan as an enemy and not to follow his footsteps (see al-Baqarah: 168; Fatir: 6).

Shari‘ah (شريعة): Literally means a clear path to water, symbolizing the way that leads to life and righteousness. In Islam, it refers to religious law — the comprehensive system of divine guidance that governs all aspects of a Muslim’s life, including worship, ethics, family, and social justice. The term shari‘ah appears in the Qur’an (al-Jathiyah: 18), meaning “a divinely ordained path,” and its plural form shara’i (as in al-Ma’idah: 48) refers to the diverse legal and moral paths revealed to earlier prophets. Derived primarily from the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), the Shari‘ah is elaborated through fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). It represents not merely a body of legal rules but a moral and spiritual framework intended to realize justice, mercy, and balance in human society.

Shawwal (شَوَّال): Literally derived from “shawl,” meaning “to lift” or “to raise.” It is the tenth month of the Islamic lunar calendar and immediately follows Ramadan. The first day of Shawwal is Eid al-Fitr, one of the most important Islamic Eids, celebrated as a day of gratitude and spiritual renewal after the month of fasting.

Shaya‘ (شياع): Literally means “widespread report” or “common news.” In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), it refers to information that becomes widely known and publicly accepted among people without formal testimony. In some legal contexts, shaya‘ may be considered a valid indicator when the matter is commonly and reliably established—for example, as one of the means for confirming ru’yat al-hilal (the sighting of the new moon), marking the beginning of a lunar month.

Shia (شيعة) — also spelled Shi’a, Shia, and Shiite — literally means “a group”, “faction,” or “followers united around a cause or leader.” The term appears in the Qur’an in its general sense to denote groups or communities of followers; for instance, the Qur’an describes Prophet Abraham as among the followers (Shia) of Prophet Noah (al-Saffat: 83). In Islamic terminology, Shia refers specifically to the followers of Imam ʿAli (p) and his descendants, who believe that the leadership (imamah) of the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) was divinely appointed. In its more specific sense, Shia Ithna ʿAshariyyah (Twelver Shia) denotes those who follow the line of the Twelve Imams (p), from Imam ʿAli (p) to Imam al-Mahdi (may Allah hasten his reappearance).

Sidr (سِدْر): Literally means “lote tree” or its leaves (Ziziphus lotus). The Qur’an mentions it in reference to the Sidrat al-Muntaha—the “Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary” near Paradise (al-Najm: 14–16)—symbolizing closeness to the Divine. In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), sidr leaves are used in ghusl al-mayyit (the ritual washing of the deceased). According to both Shia and many Sunni rulings, the body is washed three times: first with water mixed with sidr leaves, then with camphor water, and finally with pure water. The sidr serves both as a natural cleanser and as part of the symbolic purification of the body before burial.

Sirat (صراط): Literally means “path” or “way.” In the Qur’an, the word sirat consistently appears in the singular form, unlike sabil (path or way), which occurs in singular and plural forms. The singularity of sirat symbolizes the unity of the true divine path — the one straight way that leads to God. It is often described as al-sirat al-mustaqim (“the straight path”), most famously in Surat al-Fatihah, where believers pray: “Guide us to the straight path” (ihdina al-sirat al-mustaqim). In Islamic theology, sirat also carries an eschatological meaning, referring to the Bridge (Sirat) that spans over Hell, which every soul must cross on the Day of Judgment according to its deeds. The Qur’an alludes to those who deviate from it — “They are the ones who turn away from the path” (ʿan al-sirati nakibun, al-Mu’minun: 74) — emphasizing that success lies only in steadfastness upon this divinely guided way.

Suhur (سحور): Literally means “of the pre-dawn time.” In Islamic practice, it refers to the meal eaten before dawn during the month of Ramadan before beginning the daily fast (sawm). The word derives from the Arabic root s-h-r, meaning “dawn” or “early morning.” The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) encouraged Muslims to partake in suhur, describing it as a source of blessing and spiritual strength. It distinguishes the Islamic fast from other forms of fasting and serves as both a physical preparation and an act of worship before fajr (dawn).

Surah (سورة): Literally means “a chapter” or “a section of writing,” and it appears in the Qur’an to denote each distinct division of the revelation. There are 114 surahs in the Holy Qur’an, varying in length and theme. Each Surah is composed of several ayat (verses) and is named after a significant word, concept, or event mentioned within it. The term is derived from an Arabic root meaning “elevated part” or “enclosure,” symbolizing a complete and self-contained unit of divine revelation.

Tadhkiyah (تذكية): Literally means “purification” or “rendering fit,” and technically means the lawful process of slaughtering or hunting an animal in accordance with Islamic law so that its meat becomes permissible (halal) to eat. It requires invoking the name of Allah at the time of slaughter, using a sharp instrument to cut the necessary veins, and ensuring that the animal’s death results from this act. Tadhkiyah is a condition for the ritual purity and permissibility of meat in Islamic dietary law, distinguishing lawful (halal) from unlawful (haram) consumption.

Tafseer (تفسير): Literally means “explanation” or “clarification,” and technically means the science and practice of interpreting and explaining the meanings of the Holy Qur’an. The term tafseer itself appears in the Qur’an: “And they do not bring to you any argument but that We bring you the truth and a better explanation (tafseeran)” (Al-Furqan:33). A tafsir seeks to clarify the linguistic, contextual, theological, and legal dimensions of Qur’anic verses. Scholars of tafsir use various methods — including explanation by the Qur’an itself, by the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the Imams (p), as well as through reason and linguistic analysis — to uncover the intended meanings of the divine message.

Taharah (طهارة): Literally means “cleanliness” or “ritual purity,” as reflected in the Qur’anic verse on ablution (Al-Maidah:6), which indicates that wudu is prescribed for purification. Technically, taharah means the state of being ritually clean and free from both physical and spiritual impurity (najasa). In Islamic law, taharah is a prerequisite for acts of worship such as prayer (salah), circumambulation of the Kabah (tawaf), and touching the script of the Holy Qur’an. It is achieved through prescribed acts of purification such as wudu (minor ablution), ghusl (major ablution), or tayammum (dry ablution), depending on circumstances.

Tahleel (تَهْلِيل): Literally means declaring the oneness of Allah and technically refers to the utterance of “La ilaha illa Allah” (“There is no god but Allah”). It is a central expression of Islamic faith, symbolizing pure monotheism (tawhid) and the rejection of all forms of idolatry. The Qur’an frequently affirms this declaration, as in: “So know that there is no god but Allah” (Muhammad: 19). Tahleel is recited in various acts of worship — during adhan (call to prayer), hajj(pilgrimage), and dhikr (remembrance of Allah) — and is regarded as one of the most virtuous forms of remembrance.

Tahnit (تحنيط): Literally means “applying camphor” and technically means the ritual act of anointing specific parts of a deceased Muslim’s body with powdered camphor after the washing (ghusl al-mayyit) and before shrouding (kafan). The parts anointed are the forehead, palms, knees, and the big toes — the same points that touch the ground during prostration in prayer. This act, known as tahnit, symbolizes honor and spiritual fragrance at the time of returning the body to the earth

Takbirah (تكبيرة): Literally means “magnification” or “glorification,” and technically means the utterance of “Allahu Akbar” (“Allah is the Greatest”). It expresses acknowledgment of Allah’s greatness and transcendence. The Qur’an repeatedly commands the glorification and exaltation of God, as in: “And magnify Him with great magnification” (Al-Isra: 111) and “Glorify the name of your Lord, the Most High” (Al-Ala: 1). In Islamic worship, takbirah marks key moments — most notably takbirat al-ihram, the opening declaration of the daily prayers (salah) that signifies entering the state of prayer.

Takfin (تكفين): Literally means “covering” or “wrapping.” Technically, it refers to the ritual act of shrouding the body of a deceased Muslim in a burial cloth (kafan) after washing (ghusl al-mayyit) and before the funeral prayer (salat al-mayyit). The shroud, usually composed of three white pieces for men and five for women, symbolizes purity, equality, and humility before God. Takfin is among the communal obligations (fard kifayah) incumbent upon Muslims toward the deceased.

Talaq (طَلاق): Literally means “release” or “setting free.” In Islamic jurisprudence, talaq refers to the formal divorce, dissolution of marriage by the husband (or by a qualified authority, in specific circumstances), following prescribed legal and ethical procedures. The Qur’an treats divorce as a serious but lawful act, permitted only after efforts at reconciliation have failed (see al-Baqarah: 229, 231; al-Talaq: 1–2). It emphasizes fairness, observance of the waiting period (ʿiddah), and the prohibition of harming or exploiting the divorced spouse. In Islamic law, talaq is commonly categorized as: 1) Revocable divorce (talaq rajʿi)(طلاق رجعي): The husband may reconcile with his wife during the waiting period (ʿiddah) without a new marriage contract. 2) Irrevocable divorce (talaq bain)(طلاق بائن): The marriage ends completely, and reconciliation requires a new contract. 

Talbiyah (تلبية): Literally means “a response” or “answering a call.” Technically, it refers to the devotional formula recited by a pilgrim after making the intention (niyyah) for entering the state of ihram during hajj or ʿumrah. The talbiyah expresses readiness to serve and obey Allah’s command and is traditionally recited as: “Labbayka Allahumma labbayk, labbayka la sharika laka labbayk, inna al-hamda wa al-nimata laka wa al-mulk, la sharika lak.” (“Here I am, O Allah, here I am; here I am, You have no partner; here I am. Surely, all praise, blessing, and dominion belong to You; You have no partner.”)

Talqin (تلقين): Literally means “prompting” or “instructing.” Technically, it refers to the act of guiding a dying or deceased person to affirm the testimonies of faith (shahadatayn) — declaring belief in the oneness of Allah and the prophethood of Muhammad (pbuh&hp) — and reminding them of key principles of faith. When performed after burial, talqin al-mayyit involves reciting these affirmations at the graveside to strengthen the soul’s steadfastness in answering the questions of the grave. It is a recommended (mustahabb) act in Islamic funerary rites.

Taqiyya (تقيّة): Literally means “caution” or “guarding.” Technically, it refers to the act of concealing or disguising one’s faith or religious beliefs in times of actual or anticipated danger to avoid physical, psychological, or social harm. In Shia jurisprudence, taqiyya is regarded as a legitimate and sometimes obligatory act of self-protection, based on Qur’anic guidance such as: “Except one who is forced [to renounce his faith] while his heart is secure in faith” (An-Nahl: 106). It is viewed not as hypocrisy but as wisdom in preserving life, dignity, and the continuity of faith under oppression.

Taqwa (تَقْوَى): Literally means “guarding (or protecting) oneself.” In Islamic ethics, it denotes God-consciousness, piety, and moral self-restraint—the inner awareness of Allah that leads a person to avoid sin and perform righteous deeds. The Qur’an presents taqwa as both the goal and measure of true faith. It describes itself as “a guidance for the God-conscious” (huda lil-muttaqin; al-Baqarah: 2) and assures believers that “indeed, Allah is with those who have taqwa”(al-Baqarah: 194; al-Nahl: 128). Thus, taqwa is not merely fear of God, but a deep sense of presence, accountability, and moral discipline. In Nahj al-Balaghah, Imam ʿAli (p) offers a profound description of the muttaqin (the God-conscious), portraying them as people of truthfulness, humility, steadfastness, and self-control—whose hearts are alive with faith and whose actions reflect justice and compassion. This portrayal has become one of the most celebrated ethical portraits in Islamic spirituality.

Tarikah (تركة): “Estate,” all assets and property that a person leaves behind after death to be distributed according to their directive (will) and among their heirs.

Tartibi (ترتيبي): Literally means “order” or “sequence.” Technically, it refers to a type of ghusl (ritual washing) known as ghusl tartibi, in which the body is washed in a specific sequence — first the head and neck, then the right side, and finally the left side of the body. This method, called ghusl tartibi, is one of the two valid forms of ritual purification in Islamic jurisprudence; the other is ghusl irtimasi (complete immersion of the body in water).

Tasbeeh (تَسْبِيح): Literally means “glorification” or “declaring perfection” and technically refers to the act of praising Allah by saying “Subhan Allah” (“Glory be to Allah” or “Allah is free from all imperfection”). The term appears frequently in the Qur’an, where believers are commanded to glorify their Lord, as in: “So glorify the name of your Lord, the Most High”(Al-Ala :1) and “Glorify your Lord with praise before the rising of the sun and before its setting” (Qaf: 39). Tasbeeh is one of the fundamental forms of dhikr (remembrance of Allah) and is often performed with prayer beads (subhah or misbahah).

Tasbeeh of Fatimah al-Zahra (تَسْبِيحُ فَاطِمَة الزَّهْرَاء): Literally means “the glorification associated with Lady Fatimah al-Zahra (p),” the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp). Technically, it refers to a specific form of remembrance (dhikr) taught by the Prophet (pbuh&hp) to his daughter, consisting of the recitation of “Allahu Akbar” (Allah is the Greatest) 34 times, “Al-hamdu lillah” (Praise be to Allah) 33 times, and “Subhan Allah” (Glory be to Allah) 33 times — a total of 100 praises. This tasbeeh is recommended after each obligatory prayer and before sleeping. In Islamic tradition, it is described as more valuable than worldly possessions and is regarded as one of the most meritorious forms of remembrance, leading to inner peace and spiritual elevation.

Tashriq (تشريق): Literally means “exposing to sunlight.” Technically, it refers to the three days following the Day of Sacrifice (ʿid al-Adha) — the 10th, 11th, and 12th of Dhul Hijjah — known as Ayyam al-Tashriq. These days are part of the rituals of hajj, during which pilgrims remain in Mina, perform the symbolic stoning of the pillars (ramy al-jamarat), and continue reciting takbir (Allahu Akbar). They are days of remembrance and gratitude, during which believers are encouraged to glorify Allah and enjoy His blessings.

Tatheer (تَطْهِير): Literally means “purification” or “cleansing” and technically refers to complete spiritual purification and freedom from all forms of impurity or sin. The term appears in the famous Qur’anic verse known as Ayat al-Tatheer, in which Allah says: “Indeed, Allah only desires to remove all impurity from you, O People of the House, and to purify you completely (liyutahhirakum tatheera).” (Al-Ahzab :33). This verse is understood—especially in Shia interpretation—to affirm the infallibility (ʿismah) and spiritual purity of the Ahl al-Bayt, including the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), Fatimah al-Zahra (p), and the twelve Imams, from Imam ʿAli to Imam al-Mahdi (p).

Tawaf (طواف): Literally means “to go around” or “to circumambulate.” In Islamic ritual practice, it refers to circling the Kabah seven times in a counterclockwise direction as part of the worship of Hajj and ʿUmrah. The Qur’an refers to this act in several verses (see al-Hajj: 29; al-Baqarah: 125, 158). Tawaf is one of the essential obligatory rites of Hajj and ʿUmrah, and its validity depends on correct performance and ritual purity (taharah). It symbolizes devotion, unity, and the believer’s continuous turning toward God, and is followed by two units (rakʿahs) of prayer near Maqam Ibrahim.

Tawassul (تَوَسُّل): Literally means “seeking a means” or “approaching through an intermediary.” In Islamic theology, it refers to seeking closeness to God by means of a beloved or righteous person, deed, or attribute. The concept is rooted in the Qur’anic command: “Seek a means of nearness to Him” (al-Ma’idah: 35). In Shia understanding, tawassul involves invoking God through the spiritual status of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and the Imams (p), not as independent sources of power but as divinely chosen means through whom God’s mercy and guidance reach creation. It reflects both humility before God and recognition of the sacred bond between the Creator and His most righteous servants.

Tawatur (تواتُر): Literally means “successive transmission” or “repeated occurrence.” In Islamic studies—particularly in ʿilm al-hadith (the science of prophetic traditions)—it refers to a report transmitted by such a large number of independent narrators in every generation that it is impossible they could have agreed upon a falsehood. Such a report is known as a mutawatir hadith and conveys certain knowledge (ʿilm al-yaqin). Tawatur is classified into verbal (lafzi) tawatur, where the same wording is transmitted through multiple chains, and meaning-based (manawi) tawatur, where the essential meaning or concept is consistently conveyed through the exact wording that differs.

Tawbah (توبة): Literally means “to return” or to “turn back.” In Islamic theology, it refers to repentance—the act of returning to God after committing a sin or wrongdoing. True tawbah involves recognizing one’s mistake, feeling sincere remorse, and resolving not to repeat the sin. The Qur’an teaches that repentance is accepted especially from those who commit sins “out of ignorance” and then quickly turn back to God (see al-Nisa: 17), and it clarifies that “repentance is not for those who persist in sin until death approaches” (al-Nisa: 18). These verses emphasize both divine mercy and moral responsibility. A well-known prophetic tradition states: “The one who repents from a sin is like one who has no sin.” (al-nadimu ʿala al-dhambi ka-man la dhanba lah) — expressing the transformative power of sincere remorse and divine forgiveness. 

Tawfiq (تَوْفِيق): Literally means “success” or “divine enablement.” In Islamic theology, it refers to the divinely granted harmony between a person’s intention, will, and righteous action—that is, God’s special assistance that enables a believer to choose and perform what is good. Tawfiq is a manifestation of divine mercy and guidance, through which one is directed toward obedience and kept away from error. The Qur’an attributes all true success and right guidance to God alone (see Hud: 88). This concept is beautifully expressed in the well-known supplication: “Allahumma urzuqna tawfiqa al-taah” — “O Allah, grant us the success of obedience.” It reflects the believer’s awareness that genuine obedience and moral strength depend entirely upon divine assistance.

Tawhid (توحيد): Literally means “affirming oneness.” In Islamic theology, it refers to the belief in the absolute unity of God—acknowledging that He alone is one in His essence (dhat), attributes (sifat), and acts (afʿal), having no partner or equal in His divinity and lordship. Classical Islamic scholars describe four interrelated dimensions of tawhid: – Tawhid al-Dhat (Unity of Essence): God’s being is absolutely one, indivisible, and without composition or multiplicity. – Tawhid al-Sifat (Unity of Attributes): God’s attributes are not separate from His essence; His knowledge, power, and will are identical with His being. – Tawhid al-Afʿal (Unity of Acts): All actions and effects in creation ultimately originate from God, and no power exists independently of Him. – Tawhid al-ʿIbadah (Unity of Worship): Worship and devotion belong exclusively to God; directing any act of worship to others constitutes shirk (associationism). The Qur’an emphasizes tawhid as the essence of revelation and the foundation of faith (see al-Ikhlas: 1–4; al-Anbiya: 25). It negates all forms of shirk and calls humankind to recognize and serve God alone.

Tayammum (تيمُّم): Literally means “intending (or directing oneself) toward something.” In Islamic law, it refers to dry ablution, a substitute for wudu (minor ablution) or ghusl (major ablution) when water is unavailable or its use is harmful. The Qur’an explicitly permits tayammum as an act of mercy and ease (see al-Nisa: 43; al-Ma’idah: 6). Tayammum is performed by striking both hands lightly on clean earth or dust, then wiping the forehead and the hands. First, the inside of the left hand is used to wipe the outside of the right hand, then the inside of the right hand is used to wipe the outside of the left hand. For tayammum as a substitute for ghusl, the same action is repeated a second time. This act symbolizes purity of intention and the accessibility of worship even in the absence of water.

Tazir (تعزير): Literally means “reprimand,” “disciplinary punishment,” or “deterrence.” In Islamic law, it refers to a discretionary punishment imposed by a judge (qadi) or ruler for offenses for which no fixed (hadd) penalty is prescribed in the Qur’an or Sunnah. The purpose of tazir is moral and social correction, aiming to reform the offender and protect the community. The specific form and degree of tazir are left to judicial discretion and may include verbal reprimand, fines, imprisonment, or other corrective measures proportionate to the offense and circumstances. The plural form of the word is tazirat (تعزيرات), which often refers collectively to the system or category of such discretionary punishments in Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).

Tazkiyah (تَزْكِيَة): Literally means “purification” or “growth,” and technically means the purification of the soul (nafs) from moral and spiritual impurities and the cultivation of virtues leading to closeness to God. In the Qur’an, tazkiyah is presented as the path to salvation, as in the verse: “He who purifies it [the soul] succeeds, and he who corrupts it fails” (Ash-Shams: 9–10). It involves both the removal of vices such as arrogance, envy, and hypocrisy and the cultivation of virtues like sincerity, humility, and truthfulness.

Thanb (ذَنْب): “Sin,” “fault,” or “offense” against God. It is on two levels, major and minor: The major sin called Dhunoob Kabirah (ذنوب كبيرة): grave offenses explicitly threatened with severe punishment in the Qur’an and hadith, such as shirk (polytheism), intentional murder, injustice, neglect of prayer, and disobedience to parents. These require sincere repentance. And, the minor sin called Dhunoob Saghirah (ذنوب صغيرة): lesser faults or misdeeds not accompanied by the same warnings of severe punishment as the major sins. 

Thawab (ثواب): Literally means “reward” or “recompense.” In Islamic belief, it refers to the spiritual reward or divine blessing granted by Allah for righteous deeds, faith, and good intentions. Thawab reflects the Qur’anic principle that every good action—no matter how small—is recorded and compensated by God’s grace (see al-Zalzalah: 7; Al ʿImran: 195). It encompasses both worldly benefits and the eternal rewards of the Hereafter, serving as motivation for moral conduct and sincere worship.

Thihar (ظِهار): Literally derived from Dhahr (one’s back), it refers to an ancient pre-Islamic form of divorce in which a man would say to his wife, “You are to me as the back of my mother,” intending permanent separation. Islam abolished this unjust custom and established expiation (kaffarah) for those who utter it (see al-Mujadilah: 2–4). In Islamic law, dhihar is considered a sinful statement that does not in itself constitute divorce unless followed by proper legal procedures and expiation—freeing a slave, fasting two consecutive months, or feeding sixty needy persons.

Thikr (ذِكْر): Literally “remembrance.” As a term, it refers to the recitation of specific phrases or invocations during and after ritual prayers. It is a spiritual practice meant to keep God present in one’s heart and mind. The Qur’an emphasizes this practice, e.g., “Remember Me; I will remember you” (2:152) and “And remember God much” (33:41). In Islamic ethics, dhikr is regarded as the opposite of ghaflah (heedlessness).

Thimmah (ذِمَّة): “Due,” “duty,” “responsibility,” or “obligation,” often referring to an unfulfilled or unspecified religious duty that remains in a person’s conscience.

Thuhr (ظُهر): Refers to the noon prayer, one of the five obligatory daily prayers (salawat al-faridah). The time for salat al-zuhr begins when the sun crosses the meridian (zawal) and starts to decline westward. This point marks the middle of the solar day and varies throughout the year according to the changing lengths of days and nights. Zuhr symbolizes the balance and mindfulness of faith at the height of daily activity, reminding believers to pause for worship and gratitude during the busiest hours.

Thuhur (ظُهُور): Literally means “manifestation” or “appearance.” In Shia theology, it refers specifically to the reappearance (Thuhur) of Imam al-Mahdi (p)—the Twelfth Imam, who is believed to be in occultation (ghaybah) and will appear by God’s permission to establish justice and peace on earth (see al-Qasas: 5; al-Nur: 55). This concept embodies hope for the ultimate triumph of truth and the fulfillment of divine promise. The Thuhur of the Imam is preceded by signs (ʿalamat al-Thuhur) and symbolizes the renewal of faith, justice, and universal harmony under divine guidance.

Turbah (تربة): Literally means “earth” or “soil.” In Islamic worship, it refers to a piece of purified natural earth used during sajdah (prostration). Shia Muslims follow the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp), who prostrated on natural ground, believing that true humility before God is shown by placing the forehead on pure, unadorned earth rather than artificial materials. The turbah of Imam Husayn (p) from Karbala is especially revered, symbolizing sacrifice, justice, and devotion. Prostration upon it reminds the believer of steadfastness in faith and moral courage in the path of God.

ʿUbudiyyah (عبودية): Literally means “servitude” or “worshipful devotion.” In Islamic theology, it refers to the state of being a true servant of Allah, marked by humility, obedience, and complete submission to His will. Far from implying inferiority, ʿubudiyyah represents the highest human dignity—true freedom lies in sincere servitude to the Creator alone.

ʿUdhiyah (أضحية): Literally means “sacrifice” or “offering.” In Islam, it refers to the ritual animal sacrifice performed during ʿId al-Adha, commemorating Prophet Abraham’s (p) devotion when he was commanded to sacrifice his son before God replaced him with a ram (al-Saffat: 102–107). The act symbolizes obedience, gratitude, and generosity. The meat is usually divided into three parts—for one’s family, relatives or friends, and the poor—reflecting Islam’s spirit of compassion and social justice. The ʿudhiyah is performed after the ʿId prayer on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijja and may continue through the Ayyam al-Tashriq (11th–13th). It is a Sunnah Mu’akkadah (highly recommended) for those able to afford it.

ʿUlama (علماء): Plural of ʿalim (عالِم), meaning “a learned (or knowledgeable) person.” In Islamic usage, it refers to religious scholars who possess a deep understanding of the Qur’an, Sunnah, and Islamic law. The Qur’an describes the ʿulama as those whose knowledge leads them to revere and fear God sincerely (Fatir: 28). This indicates that true knowledge in Islam nurtures humility and moral awareness, not mere intellectual mastery. In Islamic tradition, the ʿulama are seen as the inheritors of the prophets (warathat al-anbiya), entrusted with guiding the ummah through learning, justice, and moral example.

ʿUmm al-Kitab (أمّ الكتاب): Literally means “the Mother of the Book.” In the Qur’an, the term appears in multiple contexts with layered meanings (see Al ʿImran: 7; al-Rad: 39; al-Zukhruf: 4). It is often interpreted as referring to: 1- The Preserved Tablet (al-Lawh al-Mahfuz), the divine source containing all decrees and eternal knowledge of God. 2- The essence or foundation of the Qur’an, containing its most fundamental and decisive verses (muhkamat). 3- The Qur’an itself is the ultimate reference and guide for truth and law. In all usages, ʿUmm al-Kitab signifies the origin, permanence, and divine authority of revelation.

Umm al-Qura (أُمُّ القُرَى): Literally means “the Mother of Cities.” In the Qur’an, it refers to the city of Mecca, honored as the spiritual and geographic center of revelation and guidance (see al-Anʿam: 92; al-Shura: 7). Mecca is called Umm al-Qura because it is viewed as the origin and focal point of divine messages, the direction (qiblah) of prayer, and the place of the first sanctuary (al-Bayt al-Haram). The term underscores Mecca’s primacy among cities and its role as the heart of the Islamic world.

Ummah (أُمّة): Literally means “community (or nation) united by a common purpose.” In the Qur’an, it denotes both the collective body of believers and a moral community guided by divine revelation (see al-Baqarah: 143; Al ʿImran: 110). The Qur’an describes the Muslim community as “ummatan wasatan”—a justly balanced and moderate nation (al-Baqarah: 143)—entrusted with bearing witness to truth and upholding justice among humankind. This concept expresses Islam’s call to moderation (wasatiyyah), equity, and responsibility in faith and action. In Islamic thought, Ummah refers especially to the global community of Muslims bound by faith in God and allegiance to His Messenger. The term, however, can also refer to any group united by belief or divine purpose; even Prophet Abraham (p) is described as “an ummah unto himself” (al-Nahl: 120) for his steadfast faith and leadership.

Ummi (أُمِّيّ): Literally means “unlettered” or “not formally taught to read and write.” The plural form is Ummiyyun (أُمِّيُّون). In the Qur’an, the term appears with several contextual meanings, including people without a revealed scripture and those lacking formal education in religious texts (see al-Baqarah: 78; Al ʿImran: 20). The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) is described as “al-Nabi al-Ummi” (the Unlettered Prophet) (see al-Araf : 157–158). This title does not signify ignorance, but rather highlights that he did not acquire knowledge through human instruction, affirming that the Qur’an is a divine revelation, not a human composition. Thus, ummi in his case denotes purity from prior written learning and direct dependence on divine inspiration.

ʿUmrah (عُمرة): Literally means “visit” or “short pilgrimage.” In Islamic practice, it refers to the minor pilgrimage to the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca, which can be performed at any time of the year, unlike Hajj, which is limited to specific days in Dhu al-Hijja. The essential rites of ʿUmrah include ihram (entering a state of consecration), tawaf (circumambulation of the Kabah), say (walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah), and taqsir or halq (cutting or shaving the hair). When performed with sincerity and obedience, ʿUmrah is regarded as a means of spiritual purification and renewal of one’s covenant with Allah. According to prophetic traditions, ʿUmrah serves as an expiation for sins committed between two pilgrimages, and its reward increases with devotion and hardship endured.

ʿUrf (عُرْف): Literally means “custom,” “common understanding,” or “recognized social norm.” In the Qur’an, the term is associated with what is good, known, and approved by reason and society, as in the command “enjoin what is right (al-ʿurf) and forbid what is wrong” (al-Araf: 199). In Islamic jurisprudence, ʿurf denotes customary practice accepted by the community that does not contradict the Shariah. It plays an important role, especially in fiqh al-muamalat (jurisprudence of transactions), where social norms help determine contractual meanings, obligations, and intentions. When consistent with Islamic principles, ʿurf is considered a valid supplementary source of law.

Usul al-Din (أصول الدين): Literally means “the foundations of religion.” In Islamic theology, it refers to the fundamental principles of faith upon which all religious beliefs and practices are built. These principles form the intellectual and spiritual foundation of Islam, distinguishing the core tenets of belief (ʿaqidah) from matters of law and ritual (furu al-din). In Shia Islam, Usul al-Din traditionally consists of five principles: 1- Tawhid – the oneness and unity of God, 2- ʿAdl – divine justice, 3- Nubuwwah – prophethood, 4- Imamah – leadership of the Imams as divinely appointed successors to the Prophet (pbuh&hp), 5- Maad – resurrection and the Day of Judgment. The study of Usul al-Din lies at the heart of Islamic theology (ʿilm al-kalam), aiming to deepen understanding, strengthen faith, and cultivate moral and spiritual awareness grounded in reason and revelation. 

ʿUsul al-Fiqh (أصول الفقه): Literally means “the principles (or foundations) of jurisprudence.” In Islamic scholarship, it refers to the science that lays down the methods and rules for deriving legal rulings (ahkam sharʿiyyah) from the Qur’an, Sunnah, consensus (ijma), and reason (ʿaql). This discipline serves as the intellectual framework of Islamic law, determining how textual evidence is interpreted, how apparent contradictions are resolved, and how general principles are applied to new cases. It also examines the meaning and authority of legal sources, the categories of rulings (wajib, haram, makruh, mandub, mubah), and the conditions for ijtihad (independent reasoning). Among the prominent Shia scholars in this field are Shaykh al-Mufid, ʿAllamah al-Hilli, al-Muhaqqiq al-Tusi, and Shaykh al-Ansari.

Wahy (وحي): Literally means “inspiration,” “revelation,” or a “quick, subtle communication.” In Islamic theology, it refers to the divine communication by which Allah conveys His guidance, commands, or knowledge to prophets—either directly, through an angel (especially Jibril/Gabriel), or by inspiration into the heart (see al-Shura: 51).

Wajib (واجب): Literally means “necessary” or “obligatory.” In Islamic law, it refers to an act that is mandated by God and whose deliberate omission incurs sin or punishment. Performing a wajib deed brings reward, while neglecting it without a valid reason is sinful. The Qur’an often expresses obligatory duties using the term faridah (فريضة), meaning divine prescription or ordained duty (see al-Nisa: 24; al-Taubah: 60). Wajib is one of the five primary legal rulings (ahkam taklifiyyah) in Islamic jurisprudence, alongside haram (forbidden), mandub (recommended), makruh (disliked), and mubah (permissible). Two main types of wajib are recognized: 1- Wajib ʿAyni (واجب عيني): An individual obligation—a duty that every legally responsible person (mukallaf) must perform personally, such as prayer (salah) and fasting (sawm). 2- Wajib Kifai (واجب كفائي): A collective obligation—a duty that, if fulfilled by some members of the community, lifts the obligation from others, but if no one performs it, all share in the sin. Examples include funeral prayer (salat al-janazah) and community defense.

Wakil (وكيل): Literally means “an agent,” “representative,” or “one entrusted with the affairs of another.” In the Qur’an, the term wakil is frequently used as one of the divine attributes of Allah, meaning “The Disposer of affairs” or “The Guardian,” as in: “And sufficient is Allah as a Disposer of affairs (wakil)” (An-Nisa:81). Thus, while humans may serve as agents for one another in worldly matters, Allah is the ultimate Wakil in all affairs, embodying perfect trust, power, and reliability. Technically, it refers to a person (wakil) who is authorized by another (muwakkil) to act on their behalf in a lawful matter through a mutual contract of agency (ʿaqd al-wakalah). This may involve transactions, legal representation, or other responsibilities that the muwakkil delegates to the wakil.

Wali (ولي): Literally means “protector,” “guardian,” or “one who is close and supportive.” The plural is awliya (أولياء). In the Qur’an, the term appears frequently with various shades of meaning, including spiritual guardianship, friendship, and divine protection. God is described as “the Wali of the believers”—the One who guides them from darkness into light (see al-Baqarah: 257). In Islamic jurisprudence, wali refers to a person entrusted with authority or guardianship over another, particularly in legal matters such as marriage, inheritance, or the care of minors. Under Islamic law, wilayah (guardianship) may be: 1- Natural guardianship, such as that of the father or paternal grandfather. 2- Appointed guardianship, given through legal or judicial authorization. 3- General guardianship (al-wilayah al-ʿammah), vested in the legitimate jurist (al-faqih al-sharʿi) who acts as the guardian of the community’s affairs. Thus, the concept of wali encompasses both personal guardianship and the broader notion of divine and moral authority rooted in protection, care, and guidance.

Wasi (وصي): Literally means “executor,” “guardian,” or “one entrusted with a will.” The plural is awsiya (أوصياء). In Islamic law, it refers to the person appointed by the testator (the one making a will) to execute, manage, and distribute the estate or to fulfill certain instructions after the testator’s death. This individual ensures that the wasiyyah (will) is carried out according to Islamic legal principles.

Wilayah (وِلاية): Literally means “authority,” “guardianship,” or “spiritual leadership.” Derived from wali (protector or ally), it encompasses both divine guardianship—God’s ultimate authority over creation—and human guardianship, as exercised by prophets, Imams, or qualified jurists. In Islamic theology and jurisprudence, wilayah appears in several forms: 1- Divine Wilayah: God’s supreme authority and care for His creation (al-Baqarah: 257). 2- Wilayah of the Prophet and Imams (pbuh&hp): The divinely granted authority to guide and lead the ummah (al-Maidah: 55). 3- Wilayah of the Jurist (wilayat al-faqih): In Shia thought, this denotes the authority of a just jurist (faqih jami al-shara’it) during the Imam’s occultation. Scholars differ on its scope, but the minimum agreed form applies to umur hisbah—matters that must not be neglected, such as protecting orphans or public property. 4- Legal Wilayah: Guardianship over minors or those unable to manage their own affairs. Thus, wilayah unites the meanings of care, responsibility, and legitimate authority, reflecting both the spiritual bond with God and the social order grounded in justice.

Witr (وِتر): Literally means “odd” or “single,” in contrast to shafʿ (even). The two terms appear together in the Qur’an at the beginning of Surat al-Fajr (89:3), where God swears “by the even and the odd.”  In jurisprudential terminology, witr refers to a one-unit recommended prayer (rakʿah wahidah mustahabbah) performed during the night, typically at the conclusion of salat al-layl (the night prayer). It is regarded as an act of devotion that embodies sincerity, humility, and remembrance of God in solitude. Although the witr prayer is not mentioned explicitly in the Qur’an, its spirit corresponds to the verses encouraging night worship (e.g., al-Isra 17:79).

Wudu (وضوء): Literally means “cleanness” or “brightness.” In Arabic, it derives from the root w-d-ʾ (و ض أ), which conveys the sense of purity and radiance. In the Qur’an, the act of wudu (ablution) is prescribed in Surat al-Maidah (5:6), where believers are commanded to wash their faces and hands, wipe their heads, and wipe their feet before prayer. In jurisprudential terminology, wudu refers to the ritual ablution that involves washing or wiping specific parts of the body with the intention of attaining ritual purity (taharah). It is a prerequisite for certain acts of worship—most importantly, the daily prayers (salah)—and symbolizes both physical cleanliness and spiritual readiness to stand before God in humility and devotion.

Yahya (يحيى): Known in English as John the Baptist, Yahya (p) is one of the noble prophets mentioned in the Qur’an (Maryam: 7–15). He was the son of Prophet Zakariyya (p) and was granted to him as a divine blessing in old age. The Qur’an praises Yahya for his purity, compassion, piety, and steadfastness, describing him as hasur (chaste) and as one who confirmed the truth of the Word of God. Yahya (p) is honored as a prophet who called people to righteousness and repentance, and who remained firm in his devotion despite persecution. His story exemplifies moral integrity, spiritual discipline, and unwavering faith.

Yamin (يمين): Literally means: “right hand,” symbolizing strength, honor, and trustworthiness in Arabic. The term came to signify an oath, promise, or covenant, since agreements were traditionally confirmed by shaking the right hand. Technically, yamin refers to a formal oath or solemn declaration invoking the name of God—for example, by saying “By Allah.” The Qur’an refers to yamin in several contexts: regulating lawful and false oaths (al-Baqarah: 225), prescribing expiation for broken oaths (al-Maidah: 89), and condemning the misuse of oaths for deceit or gain (al-Nahl: 92). The concept carries both moral and legal significance, highlighting truthfulness, accountability, and the sanctity of one’s word before God.

Yaqub (يعقوب). Jacob: A prophet of Allah, son of Ishaq (Isaac, p) and grandson of Ibrahim (Abraham, p). In the Qur’an, Yaqub is honored as a prophet and righteous servant who guided his children to the worship of the One God (al-Baqara 2:132–133). He is the father of the twelve tribes of Israel (Banu Israil), and the story of his son Yusuf (Joseph, p) is central to Surat Yusuf. Known for his patience (sabr), especially in enduring the loss of Yusuf, Yaqub (p) is revered as a model of steadfast faith.

Yawm (يَوْم): Literally means “day.” In the Qur’an, it is used in both the ordinary and symbolic sense, referring to divine acts such as creation, revelation, or judgment. The plural form ayyam (أيام) appears in several verses, e.g., “in six days” (fi sittati ayyam) describing the creation of the heavens and the earth (al-Araf : 54; Yunus : 3). Thus, yawm and ayyam signify divine order and purpose across time and existence.

Yawm al-Din (يَوم الدِّين): Literally: “the Day of Judgment.” It denotes the time of divine recompense and justice when every soul will be repaid for its deeds (al-Fatihah : 4; al-Infitar : 17–19). Mentioned in Surat al-Fatihah, this phrase is recited in every obligatory prayer, making it one of the most frequently repeated Qur’anic expressions in the obligatory daily prayers.

Yawm al-Qiyamah (يوم القيامة): The Day of Resurrection. A fundamental tenet of Islamic belief, referring to the day when all creation will be raised for judgment. The Qur’an vividly portrays it as a day of awakening, truth, and perfect justice (al-Hajj : 1–2; al-Qariah : 1–4).

Yusuf (يوسف): Known as Joseph, Yusuf (p) is one of the prophets of Allah, and his life story is recounted in detail in Surat Yusuf, which the Qur’an describes as “the best of stories” (Yusuf : 3). He was the son of Prophet Yaqub (Jacob) (p), and his story is one of patience, chastity, forgiveness, and divine providence. Yusuf (p) was betrayed by his brothers, sold into slavery, wrongfully imprisoned, and eventually elevated by God to a position of great authority in Egypt. His steadfast faith and forgiveness toward his brothers illustrate the triumph of virtue and divine wisdom over jealousy and injustice.

Zakat (زكاة): Literally means: “purification” or “growth.” In Islamic teaching, it refers to the obligatory alms tax prescribed by God to purify one’s wealth and assist the poor and needy. The Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes zakat alongside prayer (salah), highlighting its central role in personal piety and social justice (see al-Baqarah: 43; al-Tawbah: 60). Zakat is both an act of worship and a mechanism for economic balance and compassion within the Muslim community. It applies to specific categories of wealth, such as savings, livestock, agricultural produce, and trade goods, once they reach the nisab (minimum threshold) and one lunar year has passed. A special form of this duty, Zakat al-Fitrah (زكاة الفطرة), is due on the day of ʿId al-Fitr at the end of Ramadan. It must be paid by every eligible person for themselves and their dependents, typically as three kilograms (about 6.6 pounds) of staple food—such as wheat, barley, rice, dates, or raisins—or their cash equivalent. Its purpose is to purify the fast, express gratitude, and provide for those in need.

Zamzam (زمزم): The name of the sacred well near the Kabah in Mecca. According to Islamic tradition, it miraculously appeared when Allah caused water to spring beneath the feet of Prophet Ismail (p) as his mother Hajar (p) searched for water in the barren valley. The say between Safa and Marwah during Hajj commemorates this event (al-Baqarah: 158). Although the name Zamzam is not mentioned directly in the Qur’an, its story is linked to verses about Prophet Ibrahim’s (p) family and God’s blessing on the valley of Mecca (Ibrahim: 37). The water of Zamzam is regarded as blessed (mubarak) and symbolizes divine mercy and sustenance.

Ziyarah (زيارة). “Visitation; Pilgrimage of Salutation.” Refers to the act of visiting and/or reciting special salutations for the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh&hp) and his purified household (p). Ziyarah is an expression of love, loyalty, and spiritual connection, often performed at their shrines or from afar, accompanied by prescribed supplications and greetings. In Shia tradition, Ziyarah holds profound spiritual and communal significance. It embodies devotion to the Ahl al-Bayt (p), reaffirms allegiance to their values and teachings, and serves as a means of moral purification and renewal of faith. Regular acts of Ziyarah—such as Ziyarat ʿAshura, Ziyarat al-Jamiah al-Kabirah, and Ziyarat al-Arbain—occupy a central place in Shia devotional life and collective identity.

Ziyarat al-Arbain (زيارة الأربعين): Refers to the visitation and supplication recited on the 20th of Safar, marking Arbain—the fortieth day after the martyrdom of Imam al-Husayn (p). According to a narration from Imam Hasan al-ʿAskari (p), performing Ziyarat Arbain is among the distinguishing signs of a true believer. The ziyarah praises the virtues of Imam al-Husayn (p), commemorates his sacrifice for truth, and highlights his universal message of justice, faith, and steadfastness. Each year, millions of pilgrims walk to Karbala to perform this act of devotion, making Ziyarat Arbain one of the largest peaceful religious gatherings in the world.

Ziyarat al-Jamiah al-Kabirah (زيارة الجامعة الكبيرة): A comprehensive ziyarah transmitted from Imam al-Hadi (p), addressing all the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt (p). It is considered one of the most eloquent and theologically profound texts in Shia devotional literature. The ziyarah praises the Imams as the chosen representatives of God, describing their spiritual authority (wilayah), knowledge, and role as guides of humanity. It serves as a declaration of love, allegiance, and recognition of the Imams’ divinely appointed status.

Ziyarat ʿAshura (زيارة عاشوراء): A renowned devotional text recited in remembrance of Imam al-Husayn (p) and his companions who were martyred in Karbala on the tenth day of Muharram (ʿAshura). The ziyarah expresses loyalty to the Imam, renunciation of his oppressors, and reaffirmation of the covenant of faith and justice. It is transmitted from Imam al-Baqir (p) and highly recommended in both Shia tradition and supplicatory literature. Reciting Ziyarat ʿAshura is believed to strengthen spiritual connection with the Ahl al-Bayt (p) and renew commitment to truth and sacrifice.